jap banner
  • Volume/Page
  • Keyword
  • DOI
  • Citation
  • Advanced
   
 
 
 

Flickr Twitter UniPHY Group iResearch App Facebook

Journal of Applied Physics / Volume 98 / Issue 4 / APPLIED PHYSICS REVIEWS

J. Appl. Phys. 98, 041301 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1992666 (103 pages)

A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices

Ü. Özgür, Ya. I. Alivov, C. Liu, A. Teke, M. A. Reshchikov, S. Doğan, V. Avrutin, S.-J. Cho, and H. Morkoç

Department of Electrical Engineering and Physics Department, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-3072

View MapView Map

(Received 2 February 2005; accepted 13 June 2005; published online 30 August 2005)

The semiconductor ZnO has gained substantial interest in the research community in part because of its large exciton binding energy (60 meV) which could lead to lasing action based on exciton recombination even above room temperature. Even though research focusing on ZnO goes back many decades, the renewed interest is fueled by availability of high-quality substrates and reports of p-type conduction and ferromagnetic behavior when doped with transitions metals, both of which remain controversial. It is this renewed interest in ZnO which forms the basis of this review. As mentioned already, ZnO is not new to the semiconductor field, with studies of its lattice parameter dating back to 1935 by Bunn [Proc. Phys. Soc. London 47, 836 (1935) ], studies of its vibrational properties with Raman scattering in 1966 by Damen et al. [Phys. Rev. 142, 570 (1966) ], detailed optical studies in 1954 by Mollwo [Z. Angew. Phys. 6, 257 (1954) ], and its growth by chemical-vapor transport in 1970 by Galli and Coker [Appl. Phys. Lett. 16, 439 (1970) ]. In terms of devices, Au Schottky barriers in 1965 by Mead [Phys. Lett. 18, 218 (1965) ], demonstration of light-emitting diodes (1967) by Drapak [Semiconductors 2, 624 (1968) ], in which Cu2O was used as the p-type material, metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (1974) by Minami et al. [Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 13, 1475 (1974) ], ZnO/ZnSe n-p junctions (1975) by Tsurkan et al. [Semiconductors 6, 1183 (1975) ], and Al/Au Ohmic contacts by Brillson [J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1378 (1978) ] were attained. The main obstacle to the development of ZnO has been the lack of reproducible and low-resistivity p-type ZnO, as recently discussed by Look and Claflin [Phys. Status Solidi B 241, 624 (2004) ]. While ZnO already has many industrial applications owing to its piezoelectric properties and band gap in the near ultraviolet, its applications to optoelectronic devices has not yet materialized due chiefly to the lack of p-type epitaxial layers. Very high quality what used to be called whiskers and platelets, the nomenclature for which gave way to nanostructures of late, have been prepared early on and used to deduce much of the principal properties of this material, particularly in terms of optical processes. The suggestion of attainment of p-type conductivity in the last few years has rekindled the long-time, albeit dormant, fervor of exploiting this material for optoelectronic applications. The attraction can simply be attributed to the large exciton binding energy of 60 meV of ZnO potentially paving the way for efficient room-temperature exciton-based emitters, and sharp transitions facilitating very low threshold semiconductor lasers. The field is also fueled by theoretical predictions and perhaps experimental confirmation of ferromagnetism at room temperature for potential spintronics applications. This review gives an in-depth discussion of the mechanical, chemical, electrical, and optical properties of ZnO in addition to the technological issues such as growth, defects, p-type doping, band-gap engineering, devices, and nanostructures.

© 2005 American Institute of Physics

Article Outline

  1. INTRODUCTION
  2. PROPERTIES OF ZnO
    1. Crystal structures
    2. Lattice parameters
    3. Electronic band structure
    4. Mechanical properties
    5. Lattice dynamics
    6. Thermal properties
      1. Thermal-expansion coefficients
      2. Thermal conductivity
      3. Specific heat
    7. Electrical properties of undoped ZnO
      1. Low-field transport
      2. High-field transport
  3. ZnO GROWTH
    1. Bulk growth
    2. Substrates
    3. rf magnetron sputtering
    4. Molecular-beam epitaxy
    5. Pulsed-laser deposition
    6. Chemical-vapor deposition
  4. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF ZnO
    1. Prelude
    2. Optical transitions in ZnO
      1. Free excitons and polaritons
      2. Bound excitons
      3. Two-electron satellites in PL
      4. DAP and LO-phonon replicas in PL
      5. Temperature-dependent PL measurements
    3. Time-resolved PL on ZnO
    4. Refractive index of ZnO
    5. Stimulated emission in ZnO
      1. Thin films
      2. Polycrystalline ZnO films and “random lasers”
      3. Multiple-quantum wells
      4. Stimulated-emission dynamics
  5. DEFECTS IN ZnO
    1. Predictions from first principles
    2. Experimental studies of native and unintentionally introduced defects
      1. Shallow acceptor in ZnO
      2. Green luminescence band
      3. Yellow luminescence band
      4. Red luminescence band
  6. DOPING OF ZnO
    1. n -type doping
    2. p -type doping
      1. Nitrogen doping
      2. Codoping method: Nitrogen+group III
      3. Other dopants in group V
  7. ZnO-BASED DILUTE MAGNETIC SEMICONDUCTORS
    1. Theory of ZnO-based magnetic semiconductors
    2. Experimental results on ZnO-based magnetic semiconductors
  8. BAND-GAP ENGINEERING
    1. MgxZn1−xO alloy
    2. CdyZn1−yO alloy
  9. PROCESSING, DEVICES, AND HETEROSTRUCTURES
    1. Ohmic contacts to ZnO
    2. Schottky contacts to ZnO
    3. Heterostructure devices
      1. Light-emitting devices
      2. Photodiodes
    4. Metal-insulator-semiconductor diodes
    5. Transparent thin-film transistors
  10. ZnO NANOSTRUCTURES
  11. SUMMARY

RELATED DATABASES

To view database links for this article, you need to log in.

KEYWORDS and PACS

Keywords

reviews, zinc compounds, II-VI semiconductors, wide band gap semiconductors, semiconductor devices, excitons, Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, epitaxial layers, semiconductor growth, semimagnetic semiconductors

PACS

ARTICLE DATA

Digital Object Identifier
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1992666

PUBLICATION DATA

ISSN

0021-8979 (print)  
1089-7550 (online)

Publisher

$abstract.society.value is a Member of CrossRef American Institute of Physics

For access to fully linked references, you need to log in.
    R. B. Heller, J. McGannon, and A. H. Weber, J. Appl. Phys. 21, 1283 (1950)JAPIAU000021000012001283000001.

    G. P. Mohatny and L. V. Azaroff, J. Chem. Phys. 35, 1268 (1961)JCPSA6000035000004001268000001.

    R. R. Reeber, J. Appl. Phys. 41, 5063 (1970)JAPIAU000041000013005063000001.

    D. C. Reynolds and T. C. Collins, Phys. Rev. 185, 1099 (1969).

    Y. S. Park, C. W. Litton, T. C. Collins, and D. C. Reynolds, Phys. Rev. 143, 512 (1965).

    R. L. Weiher, Phys. Rev. 152, 736 (1966).

    W. S. Bear, Phys. Rev. 154, 785 (1967).

    W. L. Bond, J. Appl. Phys. 36, 1674 (1965)JAPIAU000036000005001674000001.

    W. Y. Liang and A. D. Yoffe, Phys. Rev. Lett. 20, 59 (1968).

    A. R. Hutson, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2287 (1961)JAPIAU000032000010002287000001.

    J. J. Hopfield and D. G. Thomas, Phys. Rev. Lett. 15, 22 (1965).

    Y. S. Park and J. R. Schneider, J. Appl. Phys. 39, 3049 (1968)JAPIAU000039000007003049000001.

    T. C. Damen, S. P. S. Porto, and B. Tell, Phys. Rev. 142, 570 (1966).

    C. A. Arguello, D. L. Rousseau, and S. P. S. Porto, Phys. Rev. 181, 1351 (1969).

    R. H. Callender, S. S. Sussman, M. Selders, and R. K. Chang, Phys. Rev. B 7, 3788 (1973).

    J. M. Calleja and M. Cardona, Phys. Rev. B 16, 3753 (1977).

    M. Tsuboi and A. Wada, J. Chem. Phys. 48, 2615 (1968)JCPSA6000048000006002615000001.

    S. P. S. Porto and R. S. Krishnan, J. Chem. Phys. 47, 1009 (1967)JCPSA6000047000003001009000001.

    S. S. Mitra, O. Brafman, W. B. Daniels, and R. K. Crawford, Phys. Rev. 186, 942 (1969).

    G. Galli and J. E. Coker, Appl. Phys. Lett. 16, 439 (1970)APPLAB000016000011000439000001.

    D. C. Look, D. C. Reynolds, J. W. Hemski, R. L. Jones, and J. R. Sizelove, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 811 (1999)APPLAB000075000006000811000001.

    A. Y. Polyakov et al., J. Appl. Phys. 94, 2895 (2003)JAPIAU000094000005002895000001.

    S. O. Kucheyev, J. S. Williams, C. Jagadish, J. Zou, C. Evans, A. J. Nelson, and A. V. Hamza, Phys. Rev. B 67, 094115 (2003).

    F. Hamdani et al., J. Appl. Phys. 83, 983 (1998)JAPIAU000083000002000983000001.

    J. E. Jaffe and A. C. Hess, Phys. Rev. B 48, 7903 (1993).

    J. E. Jaffe, J. A. Snyder, Z. Lin, and A. C. Hess, Phys. Rev. B 62, 1660 (2000).

    J. M. Recio, M. A. Blanco, V. Luaña, R. Pandey, L. Gerward, and J. Staun Olsen, Phys. Rev. B 58, 8949 (1998).

    S. Desgreniers, Phys. Rev. B 58, 14102 (1998).

    H. Karzel et al., Phys. Rev. B 53, 11425 (1996).

    R. Ahuja, L. Fast, O. Eriksson, J. M. Wills, and B. Johansson, J. Appl. Phys. 83, 8065 (1998)JAPIAU000083000012008065000001.

    J. M. Recio, R. Pandey, and V. Luana, Phys. Rev. B 47, 3401 (1993).

    A. Zaoui and W. Sekkal, Phys. Rev. B 66, 174106-1 (2002).

    A. B. M. A. Ashrafi, A. Ueta, A. Avramescu, H. Kumano, I. Suemune, Y.-W. Ok, and T.-Y. Seong, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 550 (2000)APPLAB000076000005000550000001.

    S.-K. Kim, S.-Y. Jeong, and C.-R. Cho, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 562 (2003)APPLAB000082000004000562000001.

    U. Rössler, Phys. Rev. 184, 733 (1969).

    R. A. Powell, W. E. Spicer, and J. C. McMenamin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 27, 97 (1971).

    L. Ley, R. A. Pollak, F. R. McFeely, S. P. Kowalezyk, and D. A. Shirley, Phys. Rev. B 9, 600 (1974).

    I. Ivanov and J. Pollmann, Phys. Rev. B 24, 7275 (1981).

    D. H. Lee and J. D. Joannopoulos, Phys. Rev. B 24, 6899 (1981).

    P. Schröer, P. Krüger, and J. Pollmann, Phys. Rev. B 47, 6971 (1993).

    P. Schröer, P. Krüger, and J. Pollmann, Phys. Rev. B 49, 17092 (1994).

    W. Göpel, J. Pollmann, I. Ivanov, and B. Reihl, Phys. Rev. B 26, 3144 (1982).

    K. Ozawa, K. Sawada, Y. Shirotori, K. Edamoto, and M. Nakatake, Phys. Rev. B 68, 125417 (2003).

    S. H. Wei and A. Zounger, Phys. Rev. B 37, 8958 (1988).

    J. L. Martins, N. Troullier, and S. H. Wei, Phys. Rev. B 43, 2213 (1991).

    Y.-N. Xu and W. Y. Ching, Phys. Rev. B 48, 4335 (1993).

    O. Zakharov, A. Rubio, X. Blasé, M. L. Cohen, and S. G. Louie, Phys. Rev. B 50, 10780 (1994).

    N. A. Hill and U. Waghmare, Phys. Rev. B 62, 8802 (2000).

    J. E. Jaffe, R. Pandey, and A. B. Kunz, Phys. Rev. B 43, 14030 (1991).

    A. Polian, M. Grimsditch, and I. Grzegory, J. Appl. Phys. 79, 3343 (1996)JAPIAU000079000006003343000001.

    A. Dal Corso, M. Posternak, R. Resta, and A. Baldereschi, Phys. Rev. B 50, 10715 (1994).

    F. Bernardini, V. Fiorentini, and D. Vanderbilt, Phys. Rev. B 56, R10024 (1997).

    F. Decremps, J. Zhang, B. Li, and R. C. Liebermann, Phys. Rev. B63, 224105 (2001)
    F. Decremps, J. Pellicer-Porres, A. Marco Saitta, J.-C. Chervin, and A. Polian, Phys. Rev. B 65, 092101 (2002).

    N. Soga and O. L. Anderson, J. Appl. Phys. 38, 2985 (1967)JAPIAU000038000007002985000001.

    S. O. Kucheyev, J. E. Bradby, J. S. Williams, C. Jagadish, and M. V. Swain, Appl. Phys. Lett.80, 956 (2002)APPLAB000080000006000956000001;, S. O. Kucheyev, J. E. Bradby, J. S. Williams, C. Jagadish, M. Toth, M. R. Phillips, and M. V. Swain, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 3373 (2000)APPLAB000077000021003373000001.

    Y. F. Lu, H. Q. Ni, and Z. M. Ren, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 498 (2000)JAPIAU000088000001000498000001.

    N. Ashkenov et al., J. Appl. Phys. 93, 126 (2003)JAPIAU000093000001000126000001.

    M. Rajalakshmi, A. K. Arora, B. S. Bendre, and S. Mahamuni, J. Appl. Phys. 87, 2445 (2000)JAPIAU000087000005002445000001.

    S. Limpijumnong and W. R. L. Lambrecht, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 91 (2001)
    J. Serrano, A. Rubio, E. Hernández, A. Muñoz, and A. Mujica, Phys. Rev. B 62, 16612 (2000).

    A. Kaschner et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 1909 (2002)APPLAB000080000011001909000001.

    C. Bundesmann, N. Ashkenov, M. Schubert, D. Spemann, T. Butz, E. M. Kaidashev, M. Lorenz, and M. Grundmann, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 1974 (2003)APPLAB000083000010001974000001.

    C. G. Van de Walle, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1012 (2000).

    M. D. McCluskey, S. J. Jokela, K. K. Zhuravlev, P. J. Simpson, and K. G. Lynn, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 3807 (2002)APPLAB000081000020003807000001;, E. V. Lavrov, J. Weber, F. Börrnert, C. G. Van de Walle, and R. Helbig, Phys. Rev. B 66, 165205 (2002).

    E. V. Lavrov, J. Weber, F. Börrnert, C. G. Van de Walle, and R. Helbig, Phys. Rev. B 66, 165205 (2002).

    M. D. McCluskey, S. J. Jokela, K. K. Zhuravlev, P. J. Simpson, and K. G. Lynn, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 3807 (2002)APPLAB000081000020003807000001.

    N. H. Nickel and K. Fleischer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 197402 (2003).

    J. A. Wolk, J. W. Ager III, K. J. Duxstad, E. E. Haller, N. R. Taskar, D. R. Dorman, and D. J. Olego, Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 2756 (1993)APPLAB000063000020002756000001.

    D. I. Florescu, V. M. Asnin, F. H. Pollak, R. J. Molnar, and C. E. C. Wood, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 3295 (2000)JAPIAU000088000006003295000001.

    D. I. Florescu, L. G. Mourokh, F. H. Pollak, D. C. Look, G. Cantwell, and X. Li, J. Appl. Phys. 91, 890 (2002)JAPIAU000091000002000890000001.

    M. Ohtaki, T. Tsubota, K. Eguchi, and H. Arai, J. Appl. Phys. 79, 1816 (1996)JAPIAU000079000003001816000001.

    S. Katsuyama, Y. Takagi, M. Ito, K. Majima, H. Nagai, H. Sakai, K. Yoshimura, and K. Kosuge, J. Appl. Phys. 92, 1391 (2002)JAPIAU000092000003001391000001.

    W. N. Lawless and T. K. Gupta, J. Appl. Phys. 60, 607 (1986)JAPIAU000060000002000607000001.

    T. Yamamoto, T. Shiosaki, and A. Kawabata, J. Appl. Phys. 51, 3113 (1980)JAPIAU000051000006003113000001.

    T. Mitsuyu, S. Ono, and K. Wasa, J. Appl. Phys. 51, 2464 (1980)JAPIAU000051000005002464000001.

    A. Hachigo, H. Nakahata, K. Higaki, S. Fujii, and S. Shikata, Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2556 (1994)APPLAB000065000020002556000001.

    J. G. E. Gardeniers, Z. M. Rittersma, and G. J. Burger, J. Appl. Phys. 83, 7844 (1998)JAPIAU000083000012007844000001.

    S. K. Tiku, C. K. Lau, and K. M. Lakin, Appl. Phys. Lett. 36, 318 (1980)APPLAB000036000004000318000001.

    V. Srikant, V. Sergo, and D. R. Clarke, Appl. Phys. Lett. 16, 439 (1995)APPLAB000016000011000439000001.

    Y. Chen, D. M. Bagnall, H.-J. Koh, K.-T. Park, K. Hiraga, Z.-Q. Zhu, and T. Yao, J. Appl. Phys. 84, 3912 (1998)JAPIAU000084000007003912000001.

    R. D. Vispute et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 348 (1998)APPLAB000073000003000348000001.

    D. M. Bagnall, Y. F. Chen, Z. Zhu, T. Yao, S. Koyama, M. Y. Shen, and T. Goto, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 2230 (1997)APPLAB000070000017002230000001.

    Z. K. Tang, G. K. L. Wong, P. Yu, M. Kawasaki, A. Ohtomo, H. Koinuma, and Y. Segawa, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3270 (1998)APPLAB000072000025003270000001.

    J. Narayan, K. Dovidenko, A. K. Sharma, and S. Oktyabrsky, J. Appl. Phys. 84, 2597 (1998)JAPIAU000084000005002597000001.

    A. Ohtomo, K. Tamura, K. Saikusa, K. Takahashi, T. Makino, Y. Segawa, H. Koinuma, and M. Kawasaki, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 2635 (1999)APPLAB000075000017002635000001.

    Y. Chen, H.-J. Ko, S.-K. Hong, and T. Yao, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 559 (2000)APPLAB000076000005000559000001.

    S. Jeong, B. Kim, and B. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2625 (2003)APPLAB000082000016002625000001.

    J.-H. Jou, M.-Y. Han, and D.-J. Cheng, J. Appl. Phys. 71, 4333 (1992)JAPIAU000071000009004333000001.

    J. Hinze and K. Ellmer, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 2443 (2000)JAPIAU000088000005002443000001.

    M. K. Ryu, S. H. Lee, M. S. Jang, G. N. Panin, and T. W. Kang, J. Appl. Phys. 92, 154 (2002)JAPIAU000092000001000154000001.

    K.-K. Kim, H.-S. Kim, D.-K. Hwang, J.-H. Lim, and S.-J. Park, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 63 (2003)APPLAB000083000001000063000001.

    T. Ohgaki, N. Ohashi, H. Kakemoto, S. Wada, Y. Adachi, H. Haneda, and T. Tsurumi, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 1961 (2003)JAPIAU000093000004001961000001.

    P. Fons, K. Iwata, A. Yamada, K. Matsubara, S. Niki, K. Nakahara, T. Tanabe, and H. Takasu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 1801 (2000)APPLAB000077000012001801000001.

    A. Ohtomo et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 2466 (1998)APPLAB000072000019002466000001.

    T. Ohnishi, A. Ohtomo, M. Kawasaki, K. Takahashi, M. Yoshimoto, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 824 (1998)APPLAB000072000007000824000001.

    S. K. Hong et al., Phys. Rev. B 65, 115331 (2002).

    L. N. Dinh, M. A. Schildbach, M. Balooch, and W. McLean II, J. Appl. Phys.86, 1149 (1999)JAPIAU000086000002001149000001.

    A. Fouchet, W. Prellier, B. Mercey, L. Méchin, V. N. Kulkarni, and T. Venkatesan, J. Appl. Phys. 96, 3228 (2004)JAPIAU000096000006003228000001.

    W. Prellier, A. Fouchet, B. Mercey, C. Simon, and B. Raveau, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 3490 (2003)APPLAB000082000020003490000001.

    S. Choopun, R. D. Vispute, W. Noch, A. Balsamo, R. P. Sharma, T. Venkatesan, A. Iliadis, and D. C. Look, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 3947 (1999)APPLAB000075000025003947000001.

    A. V. Singh, R. M. Mehra, N. Buthrath, A. Wakahara, and A. Yoshida, J. Appl. Phys. 90, 5661 (2001)JAPIAU000090000011005661000001.

    V. Craciun, J. Elders, J. G. E. Gardeniers, and I. W. Boyd, Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2963 (1994)APPLAB000065000023002963000001.

    F. T. J. Smith, Appl. Phys. Lett. 43, 1108 (1983)APPLAB000043000012001108000001.

    C. R. Gorla, N. W. Emanetoglu, S. Liang, W. E. Mayo, and Y. J. Lu, J. Appl. Phys. 85, 2595 (1999)JAPIAU000085000005002595000001.

    C. R. Gorla, N. W. Emanetoglu, S. Liang, W. E. Mayo, Y. Lu, M. Wraback, and H. Shen, J. Appl. Phys. 85, 2595 (1999)JAPIAU000085000005002595000001.

    W. I. Park, D. H. Kim, S.-W. Jung, and G.-C. Yi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 4232 (2002)APPLAB000080000022004232000001.

    W. I. Park, J. S. Kim, G. C. Yi, M. H. Bae, and H. J. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5052 (2004)APPLAB000085000021005052000001.

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, B. Jogai, C. W. Litton, G. Cantwell, and W. C. Harsch, Phys. Rev. B 60, 2340 (1999).

    W. R. L. Lambrecht, A. V. Rodina, S. Limpijumnong, B. Segall, and B. K. Meyer, Phys. Rev. B 65, 075207 (2002).

    W. R. L. Lambrecht, A. V. Rodina, S. Limpijumnong, B. Segall, and B. K. Meyer, Phys. Rev. B 65, 075207 (2002).

    J. L. Birman, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2, 157 (1959).

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, B. Jogai, and T. C. Collins, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 3794 (2001)APPLAB000079000023003794000001.

    A. Teke, Ü. Özgür, S. Dogan, X. Gu, H. Morkoç, B. Nemeth, J. Nause, and H. O. Everitt, Phys. Rev. B 70, 195207 (2004).

    S. F. Chichibu, T. Sota, G. Cantwell, D. B. Eason, and C. W. Litton, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 756 (2003)JAPIAU000093000001000756000001.

    S. F. Chichibu, A. Tsukazaki, M. Kawasaki, K. Tamura, Y. Segawa, T. Sota, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2860 (2002)APPLAB000080000016002860000001.

    J. F. Muth, R. M. Kolbas, A. K. Sharma, S. Oktyabrsky, and J. Narayan, J. Appl. Phys. 85, 7884 (1999)JAPIAU000085000011007884000001.

    T. Makino et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 975 (2000)APPLAB000077000007000975000001.

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, B. Jogai, C. W. Litton, T. C. Collins, W. Harsch, and G. Cantwell, Phys. Rev. B 57, 12151 (1998).

    D. W. Hamby, D. A. Lucca, M. J. Klopfstein, and G. Cantwell, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 3214 (2003)JAPIAU000093000006003214000001.

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, B. Jogai, C. W. Litton, T. C. Collins, H. Harsch, and G. Cantwell, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 3794 (2001)APPLAB000079000023003794000001.

    C. Weisbuch and R. Ulbrich, Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, 654 (1977).

    A. Kobayashi, O. F. Sankey, and J. D. Dow, Phys. Rev. B 28, 946 (1983).

    J. R. Haynes, Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 361 (1960).

    A. K. Viswanath, J. I. Lee, S. Yu, D. Kim, Y. Choi, and C. H. Hong, J. Appl. Phys. 84, 3848 (1998)JAPIAU000084000007003848000001.

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, B. Jogai, J. E. Hoelscher, R. E. Sherriff, M. T. Harris, and M. J. Callahan, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 2152 (2000)JAPIAU000088000004002152000001.

    A. Kobayashi, O. F. Sankey, and J. D. Dow, Phys. Rev. B 28, 946 (1983).

    T. Koida, S. F. Chichibu, A. Uedono, A. Tsukazaki, M. Kawasaki, T. Sota, Y. Segawa, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 532 (2003)APPLAB000082000004000532000001.

    S. W. Jung, W. I. Park, H. D. Cheong, G.-C. Yi, H. M. Jang, S. Hong, and T. Joo, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 1924 (2002)APPLAB000080000011001924000001.

    G. E. Jellison, Jr. and L. A. Boatner, Phys. Rev. B 58, 3586 (1998).

    C. W. Teng, J. F. Muth, Ü. Özgür, M. J. Bergmann, H. O. Everitt, A. K. Sharma, C. Jin, and J. Narayan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 979 (2000)APPLAB000076000008000979000001.

    R. Schmidt et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2260 (2003)APPLAB000082000014002260000001.

    K.-K. Kim, H.-S. Kim, D.-K. Hwang, J.-H. Lim, and S.-J. Park, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 63 (2003)APPLAB000083000001000063000001.

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, B. Jogai, C. W. Litton, G. Cantwell, and W. C. Harsch, Phys. Rev. B 60, 2340 (1999).

    Ü. Özgür, A. Teke, C. Liu, S.-J. Cho, H. Morkoç, and H. O. Everitt, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3223 (2004)APPLAB000084000017003223000001.

    Y. Chen, N. T. Tuan, Y. Segawa, H.-J. Ko, S.-K. Hong, and T. Yao, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 1469 (2001)APPLAB000078000011001469000001.

    D. M. Bagnall, Y. F. Chen, Z. Zhu, T. Yao, M. Y. Shen, and T. Goto, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1038 (1998)APPLAB000073000008001038000001.

    A. Yamamoto, T. Kido, T. Goto, Y. Chen, T. Yao, and A. Kasuya, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 469 (1999)APPLAB000075000004000469000001.

    D. S. Wiersma, M. P. van Albada, and A. Lagendijk, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1739 (1995).

    H. Cao, Y. G. Zhao, H. C. Ong, S. T. Ho, J. Y. Dai, J. Y. Wu, and R. P. H. Chang, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3656 (1998)APPLAB000073000025003656000001.

    H. Cao, Y. G. Zhao, S. T. Ho, E. W. Seelig, Q. H. Wang, and R. P. H. Chang, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 2278 (1999).

    A. Mitra and R. K. Thareja, J. Appl. Phys. 89, 2025 (2001)JAPIAU000089000004002025000001.

    D. S. Wiersma and A. Lagendijk, Phys. Rev. E 54, 4256 (1996).

    P. W. Anderson, Phys. Rev. 109, 1492 (1958).

    S. Cho, J. Ma, Y. Kim, Y. Sun, G. K. L. Wong, and J. B. Ketterson, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 2761 (1999)APPLAB000075000018002761000001.

    Y. G. Wang, S. P. Lau, H. W. Lee, S. F. Yu, B. K. Tay, X. H. Zhang, and H. H. Hng, J. Appl. Phys. 94, 354 (2003)JAPIAU000094000001000354000001.

    A. Ohtomo et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 2204 (2000)APPLAB000077000014002204000001.

    H. D. Sun et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 4250 (2000)APPLAB000077000026004250000001.

    B. Guo, Z. R. Qiu, and K. S. Wong, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2290 (2003)APPLAB000082000014002290000001.

    T. Koida, S. F. Chichibu, A. Uedono, A. Tsukazaki, M. Kawasaki, T. Sota, Y. Segawa, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 532 (2003)APPLAB000082000004000532000001.

    A. F. Kohan, G. Ceder, D. Morgan, and C. G. Van de Walle, Phys. Rev. B 61, 15019 (2000).

    J. Neugebauer and C. G. Van de Walle, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 503 (1996)APPLAB000069000004000503000001.

    A. Kobayashi, O. F. Sankey, and J. D. Dow, Phys. Rev. B 28, 946 (1983).

    Y. Yan, S. B. Zhang, and S. T. Pantelides, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 5723 (2001).

    D. C. Look, D. C. Reynolds, C. W. Litton, R. L. Jones, D. B. Eason, and G. Cantwell, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1830 (2002)APPLAB000081000010001830000001.

    J. F. Rommeluère, L. Svob, F. Jomard, J. Mimila-Arroyo, A. Lusson, V. Sallet, and Y. Marfaing, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 287 (2003)APPLAB000083000002000287000001.

    Y. R. Ryu, T. S. Lee, and H. W. White, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 87 (2003)APPLAB000083000001000087000001.

    R. Dingle, Phys. Rev. Lett. 23, 579 (1969).

    R. E. Dietz, H. Kamimura, M. D. Sturge, and A. Yariv, Phys. Rev. 132, 1559 (1963).

    B. M. Kimpel and H. J. Schulz, Phys. Rev. B 43, 9938 (1991).

    P. Dahan, V. Fleurov, P. Thurian, R. Heitz, A. Hoffmann, and I. Broser, Phys. Rev. B 57, 9690 (1998).

    D. C. Reynolds, D. C. Look, and B. Jogai, J. Appl. Phys. 89, 6189 (2001)JAPIAU000089000011006189000001.

    N. Y. Garces, L. Wang, L. Bai, N. C. Giles, L. E. Halliburton, and G. Cantwell, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 622 (2002)APPLAB000081000004000622000001.

    B. Guo, Z. R. Qiu, and K. S. Wong, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2290 (2003)APPLAB000082000014002290000001.

    B. Lin, Z. Fu, and Y. Jia, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 943 (2001)APPLAB000079000007000943000001.

    S. A. Studenikin, N. Golego, and M. Cocivera, J. Appl. Phys. 84, 2287 (1998)JAPIAU000084000004002287000001.

    M. A. Reshchikov and R. Y. Korotkov, Phys. Rev. B 64, 115205 (2001).

    G. F. Neumark, Phys. Rev. Lett. 62, 1800 (1989).

    D. J. Chadi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 534 (1994).

    S. B. Zhang, S.-H. Wei, and A. Zunger, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 1232 (2000).

    S. B. Zhang, S.-H. Wei, and A. Zunger, J. Appl. Phys. 83, 3192 (1998)JAPIAU000083000006003192000001.

    D. B. Laks, C. G. Van de Walle, G. F. Neumark, and S. T. Pantelides, Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 1375 (1993)APPLAB000063000010001375000001.

    S. F. J. Cox et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 2601 (2001).

    Y. M. Strzhemechny et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2545 (2004)APPLAB000084000014002545000001.

    H. J. Ko, Y. F. Chen, S. K. Hong, H. Wenisch, T. Yao, and D. C. Look, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 3761 (2000)APPLAB000077000023003761000001.

    W. Walukiewicz, Phys. Rev. B 50, 5221 (1994).

    C. G. Van de Walle, D. B. Laks, G. F. Neumark, and S. T. Pantelides, Phys. Rev. B 47, 9425 (1993).

    C. H. Park, S. B. Zhang, and S.-H. Wei, Phys. Rev. B 66, 073202 (2002).

    C. G. Van de Walle, D. B. Laks, G. F. Neumark, and S. T. Pantelides, Phys. Rev. B 47, 9425 (1993).

    D. B. Laks, C. G. Van de Walle, G. F. Neumark, and S. T. Pantelides, Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 648 (1991).

    A. Garcia and J. E. Northrup, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 1131 (1995).

    A. Kobayashi, O. F. Sankey, and J. D. Dow, Phys. Rev. B 28, 946 (1983).

    Z. L. Wu, J. L. Merz, C. J. Werkhoven, B. J. Fitzpatrick, and R. N. Bhargava, Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 345 (1982)APPLAB000040000004000345000001.

    H. Morkoç, S. Strite, G. B. Gao, M. E. Lin, B. Sverdlov, and M. Burns, J. Appl. Phys. 76, 1363 (1994)JAPIAU000076000003001363000001.

    R. M. Park, M. B. Troffer, C. M. Rouleau, J. M. DePuydt, and M. A. Hasse, Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 2127 (1990)APPLAB000057000020002127000001.

    L. Svob, C. Thiandoume, A. Lusson, M. Bouanani, Y. Marfaing, and O. Gorochov, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 1695 (2000)APPLAB000076000013001695000001.

    H. D. Jung, C. D. Song, S. Q. Wang, K. Arai, Y. H. Wu, Z. Zhu, T. Yao, and H. Katayama-Yoshida, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 1143 (1997)APPLAB000070000009001143000001.

    Y. Yan, S. B. Zhang, and S. T. Pantelides, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 5723 (2001).

    C.-C. Lin, S.-Y. Chen, S.-Y. Cheng, and H.-Y. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5040 (2004)APPLAB000084000024005040000001.

    N. Y. Garces, N. C. Giles, L. E. Halliburton, G. Cantwell, D. B. Eason, D. C. Reynolds, and D. C. Look, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 1334 (2002)APPLAB000080000008001334000001.

    N. Y. Garces, L. Wang, N. C. Giles, L. E. Halliburton, G. Cantwell, and D. B. Eason, J. Appl. Phys. 94, 519 (2003)JAPIAU000094000001000519000001.

    A. Tsukazaki et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 235 (2002)APPLAB000081000002000235000001.

    K. Nakahara, H. Takasu, P. Fons, A. Yamada, K. Iwata, K. Matsubara, R. Hunger, and S. Niki, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 4139 (2001)APPLAB000079000025004139000001.

    A. V. Singh, R. M. Mehra, A. Wakahara, and A. Yoshida, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 396 (2003)JAPIAU000093000001000396000001.

    J. M. Bian, X. M. Li, X. D. Gao, W. D. Yu, and L. D. Chen, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 541 (2004)APPLAB000084000004000541000001.

    T. Aoki, Y. Hatanaka, and D. C. Look, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 3257 (2000)APPLAB000076000022003257000001.

    K.-K. Kim, H.-S. Kim, D.-K. Hwang, J.-H. Lim, and S.-J. Park, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 63 (2003)APPLAB000083000001000063000001.

    Y. W. Heo, S. J. Park, K. Ip, S. J. Pearton, and D. P. Norton, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 1128 (2003)APPLAB000083000006001128000001.

    Y. W. Heo, Y. W. Kwon, Y. Li, S. J. Pearton, and D. P. Norton, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3474 (2004)APPLAB000084000018003474000001.

    O. Lopatiuk et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 012105 (2005)APPLAB000086000001012105000001.

    K. Ip, Y. W. Heo, D. P. Norton, S. J. Pearton, J. R. LaRoche, and F. Ren, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 1169 (2004)APPLAB000085000007001169000001.

    J. K. Furdyna, J. Appl. Phys. 64, R29 (1988)JAPIAU000064000004000R29000001.

    B. Beschoten, P. A. Crowell, I. Malajovich, D. D. Awschalom, F. Matsukura, A. Shen, and H. Ohno, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 3073 (1999).

    K. Ueda, H. Tabata, and T. Kawai, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 988 (2001)APPLAB000079000007000988000001.

    K. Rode, A. Anane, R. Mattana, J.-P. Contour, O. Durand, and R. LeBourgeois, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 7676 (2003)JAPIAU000093000010007676000001.

    S. Ramachandran, A. Tiwari, and J. Narayan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5255 (2004)APPLAB000084000025005255000001.

    H.-T. Lin, T.-S. Chin, J.-C. Shih, S.-H. Lin, T.-M. Hong, R.-T. Huang, F.-R. Chen, and J.-J. Kai, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 621 (2004)APPLAB000085000004000621000001.

    M. L. Reed, N. A. El-Masry, H. H. Stadelmaier, M. K. Ritums, M. J. Reed, C. A. Parker, J. C. Roberts, and S. M. Bedair, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 3473 (2001)APPLAB000079000021003473000001.

    M. Linnarsson, E. Janzén, B. Monemar, M. Kleverman, and A. Thilderkvist, Phys. Rev. B 55, 6938 (1997).

    K. Ando, H. Saito, Z. Jin, T. Fukumura, M. Kawasaki, Y. Matsumoto, and H. Koinuma, J. Appl. Phys. 89, 7284 (2001)JAPIAU000089000011007284000001.

    Z. Jin et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 3824 (2001)APPLAB000078000024003824000001.

    T. Fukumura, Z. Jin, A. Ohtomo, H. Koinuma, and M. Kawasaki, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 3366 (1999)APPLAB000075000021003366000001.

    T. Fukumura, Z. Jin, M. Kawasaki, T. Shono, T. Hasegawa, S. Koshihara, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 958 (2001)APPLAB000078000007000958000001.

    S. W. Jung, S.-J. An, G.-C. Yi, C. U. Jung, S.-I. Lee, and S. Cho, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 4561 (2002)APPLAB000080000024004561000001.

    D. P. Norton, S. J. Pearton, A. F. Hebard, N. Theodoropoulou, L. A. Boatner, and R. G. Wilson, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 239 (2003)APPLAB000082000002000239000001.

    D. P. Norton et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 5488 (2003)APPLAB000083000026005488000001.

    M. Berciu and R. N. Bhatt, Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 107203 (2001).

    A. Kaminski and S. Das Sarma, Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 247201 (2001).

    T. Dietl, F. Matsukura, and H. Ohno, Phys. Rev. B 66, 033203 (2002).

    S. Das Sarma, E. H. Hwang, and A. Kaminski, Phys. Rev. B 67, 155201 (2003).

    J. Warnock and P. A. Wolff, Phys. Rev. B 31, 6579 (1985).

    M. Sawicki, T. Dietl, J. Kossut, J. Igalson, T. Wojtowicz, and W. Plesiewicz, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 508 (1986).

    T. Dietl and J. Spalek, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 355 (1982).

    C. Zener, Phys. Rev. 81, 440 (1950)
    83, 299 (1950).

    J. Schliemann, J. Konig, and A. H. MacDonald, Phys. Rev. B 64, 165201 (2001).

    J. Konig, H. H. Lin, and A. H. MacDonald, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 5628 (2000).

    T. Jungwirth, W. A. Atkinson, B. H. Lee, and A. H. MacDonald, Phys. Rev. B 59, 9818 (1999).

    Q. Wang and P. Jena, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4170 (2004)APPLAB000084000021004170000001.

    S. W. Yoon, S.-B. Cho, S. C. We, S. Yoon, B. J. Suh, H. K. Song, and Y. J. Shin, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 7879 (2003)JAPIAU000093000010007879000001.

    J. H. Kim, H. Kim, D. Kim, Y. E. Ihm, and W. K. Choo, J. Appl. Phys. 92, 6066 (2002)JAPIAU000092000010006066000001.

    S. J. Pearton et al., J. Appl. Phys. 93, 1 (2003)JAPIAU000093000001000001000001.

    X. M. Cheng and C. L. Chien, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 7876 (2003)JAPIAU000093000010007876000001.

    A. Ohtomo, M. Kawasaki, T. Koida, K. Masubuchi, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 2466 (1998)APPLAB000072000019002466000001.

    A. Ohtomo, R. Shiroki, I. Ohkubo, H. Koinuma, and M. Kawasaki, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 4088 (1999)APPLAB000075000026004088000001.

    S. Choopun, R. D. Vispute, W. Yang, R. P. Sharma, T. Venkatesan, and H. Shen, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 1529 (2002)APPLAB000080000009001529000001.

    T. Gruber, C. Kirchner, R. Kling, F. Reuss, and A. Waag, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5359 (2004)APPLAB000084000026005359000001.

    F. K. Shan, B. I. Kim, G. X. Liu, Z. F. Liu, J. Y. Sohn, W. J. Lee, B. C. Shin, and Y. S. Yu, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 4772 (2004)JAPIAU000095000009004772000001.

    D. J. Cohen, K. C. Ruthe, and S. A. Barnett, J. Appl. Phys. 96, 459 (2004)JAPIAU000096000001000459000001.

    A. Ohtomo et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 2204 (2000)APPLAB000077000014002204000001.

    A. Ohtomo, M. Kawasaki, I. Ohkubo, H. Koinuma, T. Yasuda, and Y. Segawa, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 980 (1999)APPLAB000075000007000980000001.

    H. D. Sun, T. Makino, Y. Segawa, M. Kawasaki, A. Ohtomo, K. Tamura, and H. Koinuma, J. Appl. Phys. 91, 1993 (2002)JAPIAU000091000004001993000001.

    T. Makino, Y. Segawa, M. Kawasaki, A. Ohtomo, R. Shiroki, K. Tamura, T. Yasuda, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 1237 (2001)APPLAB000078000009001237000001.

    T. Makino, C. H. Chia, N. T. Tuan, Y. Segawa, M. Kawasaki, A. Ohtomo, K. Tamura, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 1632 (2000)APPLAB000077000011001632000001.

    T. Gruber et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 3290 (2003)APPLAB000083000016003290000001.

    J. A. Van Vechten and T. K. Bergstresser, Phys. Rev. B 1, 3351 (1970).

    M. E. Lin, Z. Ma, F. Y. Huang, Z. F. Fan, L. H. Allen, and H. Morkoç, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1003 (1994)APPLAB000064000008001003000001.

    H. K. Kim, S. H. Han, T. Y. Seong, and W. K. Choi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 1647 (2000)APPLAB000077000011001647000001.

    Y. J. Lin and C. T. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 3986 (2000)APPLAB000077000024003986000001.

    H. K. Kim, K. K. Kim, S. J. Park, T. Y. Seong, and I. Adesida, J. Appl. Phys. 94, 4225 (2003)JAPIAU000094000006004225000001.

    J. M. Lee, K. K. Kim, S. J. Park, and W. K. Choi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 3842 (2001)APPLAB000078000024003842000001.

    K. Ip, Y. Heo, K. Baik, D. P. Norton, S. J. Pearton, and F. Ren, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 544 (2004)APPLAB000084000004000544000001.

    H. Sheng, S. Muthukumar, N. W. Emanetoglu, and Y. Lu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2132 (2002)APPLAB000080000012002132000001.

    J. C. Simpson and J. F. Cordora, J. Appl. Phys. 63, 1781 (1988)JAPIAU000063000005001781000001.

    G. Xiong, J. Wilkinson, M. Mischuck, S. Tuzemen, K. B. Ucer, and R. T. Williams, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 1195 (2002)APPLAB000080000007001195000001.

    B. J. Koppa, R. F. Davis, and R. J. Nemanich, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 400 (2003)APPLAB000082000003000400000001.

    F. D. Auret, S. A. Goodman, M. Hayes, M. J. Legodi, H. A. van Laarhoven, and D. C. Look, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 3074 (2001)APPLAB000079000019003074000001.

    S. Kim, B. Kang, F. Ren, Y. Heo, K. Ip, D. P. Norton, and S. J. Pearton, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 1904 (2004)APPLAB000084000011001904000001.

    A. Y. Polyakov, N. B. Smirnov, E. A. Kozhukhova, V. I. Vdodin, K. Ip, Y. W. Heo, D. P. Norton, and S. J. Pearton, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 1575 (2003)APPLAB000083000008001575000001.

    R. C. Neville and C. A. Mead, J. Appl. Phys. 41, 3795 (1970)JAPIAU000041000009003795000001.

    S.-H. Kim, H.-K. Kim, and T.-Y. Seong, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 112101 (2005)APPLAB000086000011112101000001.

    K. Ip et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5133 (2004)APPLAB000084000025005133000001.

    K. Ip, Y. W. Heo, K. H. Baik, D. P. Norton, S. J. Pearton, S. Kim, J. R. LaRoche, and F. Ren, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2835 (2004)APPLAB000084000015002835000001.

    I.-S. Jeong, J.-H. Kim, and S. Im, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 2946 (2003)APPLAB000083000014002946000001.

    Y. I. Alivov, J. E. Van Nostrand, D. C. Look, M. V. Chukichev, and B. M. Ataev, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 2943 (2003)APPLAB000083000014002943000001.

    Q.-X. Yu, B. Xu, Q.-H. Wu, Y. Liao, G.-Z. Wang, R.-C. Fang, H.-Y. Lee, and C.-T. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 4713 (2003)APPLAB000083000023004713000001.

    Ya. I. Alivov, E. V. Kalinina, A. E. Cherenkov, D. C. Look, B. M. Ataev, A. K. Omaev, M. V. Chukichev, and D. M. Bagnall, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 4719 (2003)APPLAB000083000023004719000001.

    H. Ohta, K. Kawamura, M. Orita, M. Hirano, N. Sarukura, and H. Hosono, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 475 (2000)APPLAB000077000004000475000001.

    A. Kudo, H. Yanagi, K. Ueda, H. Hosono, K. Kawazoe, and Y. Yano, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 2851 (1999)APPLAB000075000018002851000001.

    H. Ohta, M. Hirano, K. Nakahara, H. Maruta, T. Tanabe, M. Kamiya, T. Kamiya, and H. Hosono, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 1029 (2003)APPLAB000083000005001029000001.

    J. A. Aranovich, D. Golmayo, A. L. Fahrenbruch, and R. H. Bube, J. Appl. Phys. 51, 4260 (1980)JAPIAU000051000008004260000001.

    Ya. I. Alivov, Ü. Özgür, S. Dogan, D. Johnstone, V. Avrutin, N. Onojima, C. Liu, J. Xie, Q. Fan, and H. Morkoç, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 241108 (2005)APPLAB000086000024241108000001.

    C.-X. Wang, G.-W. Yang, H.-W. Liu, Y.-H. Han, J.-F. Luo, C.-X. Gao, and G.-T. Zou, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2427 (2004)APPLAB000084000013002427000001.

    H. Ohta, H. Mizoguchi, M. Hirano, S. Narushima, T. Kamiya, and H. Hosono, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 823 (2003)APPLAB000082000005000823000001.

    A. Osinsky et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 4272 (2004)APPLAB000085000019004272000001.

    S. Masuda, K. Kitamura, Y. Okumura, S. Miyatake, H. Tabata, and T. Kawai, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 1624 (2003)JAPIAU000093000003001624000001.

    R. L. Hoffman, B. J. Norris, and J. F. Wager, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 733 (2003)APPLAB000082000005000733000001.

    R. L. Hoffman, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 5813 (2004)JAPIAU000095000010005813000001.

    F. M. Hossain et al., J. Appl. Phys. 94, 7768 (2003)JAPIAU000094000012007768000001.

    P. F. Carcia, R. S. McLean, M. H. Reilly, and G. Nunes, Jr., Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 1117 (2003)APPLAB000082000007001117000001.

    X. D. Bai, P. X. Gao, Z. L. Wang, and E. G. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 4806 (2003)APPLAB000082000026004806000001.

    V. A. L. Roy, A. B. Djurisic, W. K. Chan, J. Gao, H. F. Lui, and C. Surya, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 141 (2003)APPLAB000083000001000141000001.

    S. F. Yu, C. Yuen, S. P. Lau, W. I. Park, and G.-C. Yi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3241 (2004)APPLAB000084000017003241000001.

    T. Yatsui, T. Kawazoe, M. Ueda, Y. Yamamoto, M. Kourogi, and M. Ohtsu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 3651 (2001)APPLAB000081000019003651000001.

    Z. Qiu, K. S. Wong, M. Wu, W. Lin, and H. Xu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2739 (2004)APPLAB000084000015002739000001.

    H. Chik, J. Liang, S. G. Cloutier, N. Kouklin, and J. M. Xu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3376 (2004)APPLAB000084000017003376000001.

    Q. X. Zhao, M. Willander, R. E. Morjan, Q.-H. Hu, and E. E. B. Campbell, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 165 (2003)APPLAB000083000001000165000001.

    W. I. Park, D. H. Kim, S.-W. Jung, and G.-C. Yi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 4232 (2002)APPLAB000080000022004232000001.

    X. Liu, X. Wu, H. Cao, and R. P. H. Chang, J. Appl. Phys. 96, 3141 (2004)JAPIAU000095000006003141000001.

    Y. B. Li, Y. Bando, and D. Golberg, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3603 (2004)APPLAB000084000018003603000001.

    P. X. Gao and Z. L. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2883 (2004)APPLAB000084000015002883000001.

    W. D. Yu, X. M. Li, and X. D. Gao, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2658 (2004)APPLAB000084000014002658000001.

    A. B. Djurisic, Y. H. Leung, W. C. H. Choy, K. W. Cheah, and W. K. Chan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2635 (2004)APPLAB000084000014002635000001.

    Z. L. Wang, X. Y. Kong, and J. M. Zuo, Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 185502 (2003).

    B. P. Zhang, N. T. Binh, Y. Segawa, Y. Kashiwaba, and K. Haga, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 586 (2004)APPLAB000084000004000586000001.

    M. Haupt et al., J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6252 (2003)JAPIAU000093000010006252000001.

    R. Könenkamp, R. C. Word, and C. Schlegel, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 6004 (2004)APPLAB000085000024006004000001.

    Y. W. Heo et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 2002 (2004)APPLAB000085000011002002000001.

    Y. W. Heo, L. C. Tien, Y. Kwon, S. J. Pearton, B. S. Kang, F. Ren, and J. R. LaRoche, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 3107 (2004)APPLAB000085000015003107000001.

    W. I. Park, J. S. Kim, G.-C. Yi, M. H. Bae, and H.-J. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5052 (2004)APPLAB000085000021005052000001.

    Z. Fan, D. Wang, P.-C. Chang, W.-Y. Tseng, and J. G. Lu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5923 (2004)APPLAB000085000024005923000001.

    Z. Fan, P.-C. Chang, J. G. Lu, E. C. Walter, R. M. Penner, C.-H. Lin, and H. P. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 6128 (2004)APPLAB000085000025006128000001.

    Y. W. Heo, L. C. Tien, Y. Kwon, D. P. Norton, S. J. Pearton, B. S. Kang, and F. Ren, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 2274 (2004)APPLAB000085000012002274000001.

    H. S. Bae, M. H. Yoon, J. H. Kim, and S. Im, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 733 (2003)APPLAB000082000005000733000001.

    M. Liu and H. K. Kim, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 173 (2004)APPLAB000084000002000173000001.

    L. Lagowski, E. S. Sproles, Jr., and H. C. Gatos, J. Appl. Phys. 48, 3566 (1977)JAPIAU000048000008003566000001.

    B. P. Zhang, N. T. Binh, K. Wakatsuki, Y. Segawa, Y. Yamada, N. Usami, M. Kawasaki, and H. Koinuma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4098 (2004)APPLAB000084000020004098000001.

    Y. Noel, C. M. Zicovich-Wilson, B. Civalleri, Ph. D'Arco, and R. Dovesi, Phys. Rev. B 65, 014111 (2001).

    G. Carlotti, G. Socino, A. Petri, and E. Verona, Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 1889 (1987)APPLAB000051000023001889000001.

    T. Azuhata et al., J. Appl. Phys. 94, 968 (2003)JAPIAU000094000002000968000001.

    R. M. Martin, Phys. Rev. B 5, 1607 (1972).


For access to citing articles, you need to log in.


Figures (132) Tables (19)

Access to article objects (figures, tables, multimedia) requires a subscription; log in to view available files.
(Access to supplementary files, where available, is free for this journal.)

Access to article objects (figures, tables, multimedia) requires a subscription; log in to view available files.
(Access to supplementary files, where available, is free for this journal.)



Close

Google Calendar

ADVERTISEMENT

Your Recent History Recent History Help

Recently Viewed

  1. A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices
  2. Composition-dependent structural properties in ScGaN alloy films: A combined experimental and theoretical study
  3. Compact soft x-ray source using Thomson scattering
  4. Field-enhancement factor for carbon nanotube array
  5. Robust and regenerable integrally gated carbon nanotube field emitter arrays
Go to AIP Home
Copyright © American Institute of Physics
close