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1 Jun 2005

Volume 97, Issue 11, Articles (11xxxx)

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Anomaly of gas drag force on liquid droplets in a turbulent two-phase flow produced by a mechanical jet sprayer at intermediate Reynolds numbers

Nikolai N. Simakov and Andrei N. Simakov

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114901 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1905777 (8 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 24 May 2005

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Hydrodynamic properties of a turbulent two-phase flow (water droplets in the air) produced by a mechanical jet sprayer were studied experimentally and the drag force on the droplets was found to be anomalously weak; the drag coefficient is four to seven times smaller than predicted by standard expressions. Several hypotheses are suggested in this article and discussed in an attempt to explain the phenomenon. A two-dimensional model of the flow with the drag anomaly is proposed, which provides excellent agreement between the numerical and experimental results. Taking the drag anomaly into account allows an explanation of a number of features of the two-phase flow that are hard to explain otherwise, in particular, the fact that only about one-half of the initial water jet momentum was transferred to the gas during the experiment.
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47.55.Kf Particle-laden flows
47.55.D- Drops and bubbles
47.27.wg Turbulent jets

Finite element simulations of the laser-heated diamond-anvil cell

Boris Kiefer and Thomas S. Duffy

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114902 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1906292 (9 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 24 May 2005

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Axial and radial temperature gradients in the laser-heated diamond-anvil cell are examined using finite element simulations. Calculations are carried out for an optically thin silicate or oxide sample separated from the diamonds by an insulation medium and heated by a TEM00 mode from an infrared laser. The peak temperature of the simulations was chosen to be a representative value (2200 K) and sample dimensions are typical for experiments in the 20–50‐GPa range. The distance between the anvils is 30 μm. The total temperature drop across the sample in the axial direction is controlled by two parameters: the filling fraction (thickness of sample∕distance between anvils) and the ratio of thermal conductivity between the sample and insulator (kS/kI). The results of the numerical calculations agree well with a one-dimensional numerical model. For a sample filling fraction of 0.5, the axial temperature drop will range from about 1000 K (>45%) for a thermal conductivity ratio of 1 to about 200 K (<10%) for a conductivity ratio of 10. If the conductivity ratio between sample and insulator is reduced to 1, then a sample filling fraction of less than 0.1 is required to keep the axial temperature decrease to be less than 10%. The effects of asymmetric samples and variations in absorption length are also examined. For a given gasket thickness and conductivity ratio, we find that radial gradients are minimal at a filling fraction of about 50% and then increase at higher and lower filling ratios. The anvil surface remains close to room temperature in all calculations. Our results demonstrate that reduction of axial temperature variations in optically thin laser-heated samples requires the use of thick, low thermal conductivity insulation media.
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62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
66.70.-f Nonelectronic thermal conduction and heat-pulse propagation in solids; thermal waves
42.62.-b Laser applications

Thermoelectric performance of films in the bismuth-tellurium and antimony-tellurium systems

Luciana W. da Silva, Massoud Kaviany, and Ctirad Uher

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114903 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1914948 (10 pages) | Cited 30 times

Online Publication Date: 24 May 2005

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Coevaporated bismuth-tellurium and antimony-tellurium films were fabricated under various deposition conditions (controlled evaporation rates of individual species, substrate temperature, and substrate material), and their thermoelectric (TE) properties (Seebeck coefficient, electrical resistivity, and carrier concentration) were measured in search of optimal TE performance. The tellurium atomic concentration was varied from 48% to 74%, the substrate temperature ranged from 130 to 300 °C, and glass, mica, magnesium oxide, and sapphire substrates were used. The chemical composition and crystal structure of the films were recorded (using microprobe and x-ray diffractometer, respectively), analyzed, and compared with available standard Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 single-crystal samples. High-performance TE films had tellurium atomic concentration around 60% and were deposited at a substrate temperature between 260 and 270 °C.
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72.20.Pa Thermoelectric and thermomagnetic effects
73.50.Lw Thermoelectric effects
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Effect of ozone treatment on the electrical properties of (Ba0.7Sr0.3)TiO3 thin films

Sandip Halder, Theodor Schneller, Rene Meyer, and Rainer Waser

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114904 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1927289 (5 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 25 May 2005

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Thin films of (BaxSr1−x)TiO3 were deposited on Pt-coated Si substrates by chemical solution deposition. The films were postannealed under ozone atmosphere at various temperatures. Although there was no change observed in the microstructure after the anneal in ozone, the dielectric dispersion and the loss tangents were reduced for the films. It was also noticed that the leakage current reduced by almost two orders of magnitude after treatment with ozone. The ozone treatment was done at various temperatures between 250 and 450 °C to find an optimum temperature with regard to the electrical properties. Films postannealed in ozone at 350 °C for 30 min showed a leakage reduction by almost three orders of magnitude. The leakage dependence on ozone postannealing is discussed on the basis of an interface-dominated (Schottky injection) and a bulk-dominated (point defect approach) charge transport process as the two limiting conduction mechanisms across thin films.
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77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
77.22.Ch Permittivity (dielectric function)
77.22.Gm Dielectric loss and relaxation
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

Modeling of crossflow jet-type singlet oxygen generator

Goro Watanabe, Daichi Sugimoto, Oleg Vyskubenko, Kazuyoku Tei, Kenzo Nanri, and Tomoo Fujioka

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114905 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1922089 (11 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 26 May 2005

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A quasi-two-dimensional model has been developed to predict the performance of a crossflow jet singlet oxygen generator. The model takes into account HO2− depletion, gas temperature variation due to the pooling deactivation of O2(math), and the stretch effect of gas/liquid interaction area due to the jet-induced pressure loss. The modeling results compare favorably with the test data measured over a wide range of geometries and operation conditions. The overall agreements between measured and calculated values in terms of root-mean-square errors for utilization, yield, and gas temperature are 0.030, 0.035, and 16.23 K, respectively.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.55.Ks Chemical lasers
47.27.wg Turbulent jets
82.40.-g Chemical kinetics and reactions: special regimes and techniques

Two mechanisms of crater formation in ultraviolet-pulsed-laser irradiated SiO2 thin films with artificial defects

S. Papernov and A. W. Schmid

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114906 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1924878 (9 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 27 May 2005

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Atomic force microscopy was employed to investigate the morphology of ultraviolet nanosecond-pulsed-laser damage in SiO2 thin films. Gold nanoparticles, 18.5‐nm diameter, embedded in the film were used as calibrated absorbing defects. Damage-crater diameter, depth, and cross-sectional profiles were measured as a function of laser fluence and the lodging depth of gold nanoparticles. The results indicate that, at laser fluences close to the crater-formation threshold and for lodging depths of a few particle diameters, the dominating regime of the material removal is melting and evaporation. The morphology of craters initiated by deep absorbing defects, with a lodging depth larger than ∼ 10 particle diameters, clearly points to a two-stage material-removal mechanism. The process starts with the material melting within the narrow channel volume and, upon temperature and pressure buildup, film fracture takes place. Crater-diameter variation with lodging depth and laser fluence is compared with theoretical predictions.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
81.40.Np Fatigue, corrosion fatigue, embrittlement, cracking, fracture, and failure
62.20.M- Structural failure of materials
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
64.70.F- Liquid-vapor transitions
64.70.D- Solid-liquid transitions

Theoretical and experimental investigation of flexural wave propagation in straight beams with periodic structures: Application to a vibration isolation structure

Jihong Wen, Gang Wang, Dianlong Yu, Honggang Zhao, and Yaozong Liu

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114907 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1922068 (4 pages) | Cited 12 times

Online Publication Date: 31 May 2005

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A periodic binary straight beam with different cross sections is constructed and studied. The band structures of flexural waves in the structure are calculated with the plane-wave expansion method and the vibration attenuation spectra of a finite sample of it are calculated with the finite element method. Vibration experiment is performed in order to validate all the theoretical results, and the results match mainly. Finally, a vibration isolation structure is designed by using the feature of the flexural wave band gaps of the beam with periodic structure, which provides an attenuation of about 30 dB in the frequency range of the band gaps.
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46.40.Cd Mechanical wave propagation (including diffraction, scattering, and dispersion)
62.30.+d Mechanical and elastic waves; vibrations
07.10.Fq Vibration isolation

Hydrogen content in doped and undoped BaPrO3 and BaCeO3 by cold neutron prompt-gamma activation analysis

Camille Y. Jones, Jian Wu, LiPing Li, and Sossina M. Haile

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114908 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1922590 (4 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 31 May 2005

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Proton uptake in undoped and Y-doped BaPrO3 has been measured by cold neutron prompt-gamma activation analysis, and compared to the proton uptake in Gd-doped BaCeO3, as determined by the same technique. The conventional proton incorporation model of perovskites in which oxygen ion vacancies, generated by the introduction of the trivalent dopant onto the tetravalent perovskite site, are filled with hydroxyl groups upon exposure of the sample to H2O containing atmospheres, predicts that the proton concentration in such materials should be no greater than the dopant concentration. In contradiction to this model, the proton concentration in BaPr1−xYxO3 after humidification is as much as three times greater than the dopant concentration, and even undoped samples contain a high concentration of protons. Moreover, x-ray photoemission spectra suggest that the Pr oxidation state is lowered upon hydration. In contrast, BaCe0.9Y0.1O3 shows a typical hydrogen concentration, of close to 90% of the yttrium concentration. The results are interpreted in terms of the variable valence of Pr, which can become reduced from the 4+ to the 3+ oxidation state upon exposure to water, and effectively behaves as a self-dopant within the structure.
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82.80.Jp Activation analysis and other radiochemical methods
82.80.Pv Electron spectroscopy (X-ray photoelectron (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), etc.)
79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
61.72.up Other materials

Single beam determination of porosity and etch rate in situ during etching of porous silicon

S. E. Foss, P. Y. Y. Kan, and T. G. Finstad

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114909 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1925762 (11 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 31 May 2005

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A laser reflection method has been developed and tested for analyzing the etching of porous silicon (PS) films. It allows in situ measurement and analysis of the time dependency of the etch rate, the thickness, the average porosity, the porosity profile, and the interface roughness. The interaction of an infrared laser beam with a layered system consisting of a PS layer and a substrate during etching results in interferences in the reflected beam which is analyzed by the short-time Fourier transform. This method is used for analysis of samples prepared with etching solutions containing different concentrations of HF and glycerol and at different current densities and temperatures. Variations in the etch rate and porosity during etching are observed, which are important effects to account for when optical elements in PS are made. The method enables feedback control of the etching so that PS films with a well-controlled porosity are obtainable. By using different beam diameters it is possible to probe interface roughness at different length scales. Obtained porosity, thickness, and roughness values are in agreement with values measured with standard methods.
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81.05.Rm Porous materials; granular materials
81.05.Cy Elemental semiconductors
81.65.Cf Surface cleaning, etching, patterning
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
68.35.Ct Interface structure and roughness
61.43.Gt Powders, porous materials
42.79.-e Optical elements, devices, and systems

The distribution of impurities in the interfaces and window layers of thin-film solar cells

M. Emziane, K. Durose, D. P. Halliday, N. Romeo, and A. Bosio

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114910 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1921344 (6 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 1 June 2005

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We report a systematic multielement study of impurities in CdS window layers by dynamic and quantitative secondary-ion-mass spectrometry (SIMS) with high depth resolution. The study was carried out on CdTe∕CdS solar cell structures, with the glass substrate removed. The analysis proceeded from the transparent conductive oxide free surface to the CdTe absorbing layer with a view to examining the influence of the CdCl2 heat treatment on the distribution and concentration of impurities in the structures. Special attention was paid to the impurities present in the CdS window layer that may be electrically active, and therefore affect the characteristics of the CdTe∕CdS device. It was shown that Cl, Na, and Sb impurities had higher concentrations in CdS following cadmium chloride (CdCl2) heat treatment while Pb, O, Sn, and Cu conserved the same concentration. Furthermore, Zn, Si, and In showed slightly lower concentrations on CdCl2 treatment. Possible explanations of these changes are discussed and the results compared with previous SIMS measurements from the “back wall” (i.e., from the CdTe free surface through the glass substrate) obtained from the same structures.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
82.80.Ms Mass spectrometry (including SIMS, multiphoton ionization and resonance ionization mass spectrometry, MALDI)
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing

Thermal decomposition mechanisms of hafnium and zirconium silicates at the atomic scale

S. Monaghan, J. C. Greer, and S. D. Elliott

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114911 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1926399 (9 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 1 June 2005

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The hafnium and zirconium silicates, (MO2)x(SiO2)1−x, with M = Hf/Zr, are being considered as high-k gate dielectrics for field-effect transistors as a compromise between high permittivity and thermal stability during processing. Using atomic-scale models of silicates derived from hafnon/zircon, stability before and after simulated thermal annealing is calculated within a density-functional approach. These silicates are found to be thermodynamically unstable with respect to decomposition into SiO2 and MO2 (M = Hf/Zr). Segregation mechanisms on the atomic scale are studied leading to an insight as to an why SiO2-rich mixtures undergo spinodal decomposition and why, by contrast, MO2-rich phases are metastable, decomposing below typical process temperatures.
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77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
82.30.Lp Decomposition reactions (pyrolysis, dissociation, and fragmentation)
64.75.-g Phase equilibria

Raman spectroscopy as a tool to study TiC formation during controlled ball milling

B. H. Lohse, A. Calka, and D. Wexler

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114912 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1927282 (7 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 2 June 2005

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Titanium and carbon elemental powder mixtures with compositions of Ti100−xCx (x = 50,40,30) were milled under a helium atmosphere using a magnetoball mill. For Ti50C50 and Ti60C40 powder mixtures, the combined results of external mill temperature monitoring and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicated that, after a specific incubation period, titanium carbide (TiC) was formed rapidly via a highly exothermic mechanically induced reaction. However, contrary to the current understanding of mechanically induced self-propagating reactions, Raman spectroscopy clearly showed the formation of nonstoichiometric TiC in Ti50C50 and Ti60C40 powders prior to the sudden exothermic event occurring inside the mill. This result has not been reported in previous studies that used only XRD analysis to characterize the as-milled powders. It is now thought that a significant component of the heat generated after the incubation period may be due to a combination of rapid grain growth and/or recrystallization of the preexisting TiC, rather than the direct formation of TiC. When milling Ti70C30, the reaction to form TiC proceeded gradually as milling progressed.
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81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
81.20.Wk Machining, milling
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

Microcrystalline silicon solar cells deposited at high rates

Y. Mai, S. Klein, R. Carius, J. Wolff, A. Lambertz, F. Finger, and X. Geng

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114913 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1927689 (12 pages) | Cited 63 times

Online Publication Date: 3 June 2005

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Hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (μc-Si:H) thin-film solar cells were prepared at high rates by very high frequency plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition under high working pressure. The influence of deposition parameters on the deposition rate (RD) and the solar cell performance were comprehensively studied in this paper, as well as the structural, optical, and electrical properties of the resulting solar cells. Reactor-geometry adjustment was done to achieve a stable and homogeneous discharge under high pressure. Optimum solar cells are always found close to the transition from microcrystalline to amorphous growth, with a crystallinity of about 60%. At constant silane concentration, an increase in the discharge power did hardly increase the deposition rate, but did increase the crystallinity of the solar cells. This results in a shift of the μc-Si:H∕a-Si:H transition to higher silane concentration, and therefore leads to a higher RD for the optimum cells. On the other hand, an increase in the total flow rate at constant silane concentration did lead to a higher RD, but lower crystallinity. With this shift of the μc-Si:H∕a-Si:H transition at higher flow rates, the RD for the optimum cells decreased. A remarkable structure development along the growth axis was found in the solar cells deposited at high rates by a “depth profile” method, but this does not cause a deterioration of the solar cell performance apart from a poorer blue-light response. As a result, a μc-Si:H single-junction p‐i‐n solar cell with a high efficiency of 9.8% was deposited at a RD of 1.1 nm∕s.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Stress development kinetics in plasma-enhanced chemical-vapor-deposited silicon nitride films

Michael P. Hughey and Robert F. Cook

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114914 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1927708 (10 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 6 June 2005

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The kinetics of post-deposition irreversible tensile stress development on annealing in plasma-enhanced chemical-vapor-deposited silicon nitride films are described. Films were deposited at 150, 250, and 300 °C, and in situ stress measurements were performed during thermal cycling and annealing at various temperatures up to 500 °C and for annealing times up to 36 h. A constitutive relationship between stress development and hydrogen concentration change based on a modified first-order rate law that assumes a spread in activation energies for hydrogen reaction and exsolution is proposed and found to adequately describe stress development kinetics. The long-standing belief that stress development is generated by the evolution of bonded hydrogen is validated on comparison of film stress and hydrogen concentration, as measured by forward recoil spectrometry and infrared spectroscopy. Stress development is found to be proportional to the reduction in hydrogen concentration throughout annealing with a proportionality constant that depends on deposition temperature.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

The Ohmic heating of particulates in a lossless medium

Wilkin Tang, Herman Bosman, Y. Y. Lau, and R. M. Gilgenbach

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114915 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1922085 (11 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 7 June 2005

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This paper provides a general theory on the Ohmic dissipation of electromagnetic energy by a spherical particulate that is embedded in a lossless medium. The particulate may possess an arbitrary electrical conductivity, and both the medium and the particulate may assume general values of permittivity and permeability. Under the assumption that the wavelength of the electromagnetic field in the medium is large compared with the particulate size, we provide an accurate account of the degree of Ohmic heating by the radio frequency (rf) electric field and by the rf magnetic field of the electromagnetic field. It is found that, in general, heating by the rf magnetic field is dominant whenever δ<a, where δ is the resistive skin depth and a is the radius of the particulate. Analytic scaling laws in the various regimes are derived, from the static case to very high frequency, and for ratios of δ/a ranging from zero to infinity. The calculation is extended to a transient electromagnetic pulse. Also constructed is the loss tangent of the medium, resulting from a distribution of particulates.
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41.20.Jb Electromagnetic wave propagation; radiowave propagation
41.20.Cv Electrostatics; Poisson and Laplace equations, boundary-value problems

Effect of grain boundaries on hydrocarbon sensing in Fe-doped p-type semiconducting perovskite SrTiO3 films

M. Mahesh Kumar and M. L. Post

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 114916 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1922584 (8 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 7 June 2005

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Films of Fe-doped SrTiO3 deposited using pulsed laser deposition on sapphire and alumina, when exposed to propane, showed different sensor responses measured (as a resistance change) as a function of temperature and microstructure. The film deposited on alumina has a stronger response towards 3000-ppm propane than does the film deposited on sapphire. Films deposited on alumina exhibit higher dc conductivity than the films on sapphire. The activation energies indicate a mixed electronic/ionic conduction at low temperature with the high-temperature regime showing a temperature-independent conductivity. The origin of the difference in gas responses caused by varying temperature and morphology has been explored using ac impedance techniques and measured as a function of frequency (1 Hz ⩽ f ⩽ 1 MHz) and temperature (200 ⩽ T ⩽ 480 °C). A single relaxation (a single semicircle in the complex impedance plane) in the frequency domain was observed in addition to the relaxation due to the electrode-film interface. A model and a mechanism of conduction for the above are derived using equivalent circuits to fit the ac impedance data and dc conductivity. It is proposed that the reduction of Fe-doped SrTiO3, which is induced by propane, enhances the space-charge barrier near the grain boundaries and increases the sensitivity to propane.
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07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing
81.05.Hd Other semiconductors
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.55.A- Nucleation and growth
61.72.Mm Grain and twin boundaries
82.80.-d Chemical analysis and related physical methods of analysis
66.30.H- Self-diffusion and ionic conduction in nonmetals
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition
82.30.-b Specific chemical reactions; reaction mechanisms
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
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