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Journal of Applied Physics / Volume 97 / Issue 11 / APPLIED PHYSICS REVIEWS-FOCUSED REVIEW

J. Appl. Phys. 97, 111101 (2005); doi:10.1063/1.1927699 (27 pages)

Ultrafast electron microscopy in materials science, biology, and chemistry

Wayne E. King1, Geoffrey H. Campbell1, Alan Frank1, Bryan Reed1, John F. Schmerge2, Bradley J. Siwick3, Brent C. Stuart4, and Peter M. Weber5

1University of California Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, L-356, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94551
2Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, MS 69, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025
3Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie (FOM) Institute for Atomic and Molecular Physics (AMOLF), P.O. Box 41883, 1009 DB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
4University of California Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, L-470, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94551
5Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912

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(Received 17 November 2004; accepted 4 February 2005; published online 8 June 2005)

The use of pump-probe experiments to study complex transient events has been an area of significant interest in materials science, biology, and chemistry. While the emphasis has been on laser pump with laser probe and laser pump with x-ray probe experiments, there is a significant and growing interest in using electrons as probes. Early experiments used electrons for gas-phase diffraction of photostimulated chemical reactions. More recently, scientists are beginning to explore phenomena in the solid state such as phase transformations, twinning, solid-state chemical reactions, radiation damage, and shock propagation. This review focuses on the emerging area of ultrafast electron microscopy (UEM), which comprises ultrafast electron diffraction (UED) and dynamic transmission electron microscopy (DTEM). The topics that are treated include the following: (1) The physics of electrons as an ultrafast probe. This encompasses the propagation dynamics of the electrons (space-charge effect, Child’s law, Boersch effect) and extends to relativistic effects. (2) The anatomy of UED and DTEM instruments. This includes discussions of the photoactivated electron gun (also known as photogun or photoelectron gun) at conventional energies (60–200 keV) and extends to MeV beams generated by rf guns. Another critical aspect of the systems is the electron detector. Charge-coupled device cameras and microchannel-plate-based cameras are compared and contrasted. The effect of various physical phenomena on detective quantum efficiency is discussed. (3) Practical aspects of operation. This includes determination of time zero, measurement of pulse-length, and strategies for pulse compression. (4) Current and potential applications in materials science, biology, and chemistry. UEM has the potential to make a significant impact in future science and technology. Understanding of reaction pathways of complex transient phenomena in materials science, biology, and chemistry will provide fundamental knowledge for discovery-class science.

© 2005 American Institute of Physics

Article Outline

  1. INTRODUCTION
  2. ELECTRONS AS AN ULTRAFAST PROBE
    1. Diffraction
    2. Imaging
    3. Historical context
  3. ANATOMY OF UED AND DTEM
    1. UED
    2. DTEM
    3. Electron guns
      1. Photoactivated electron sources
        1. Reducing transit-time broadening in photocathode-to-mesh region.
        2. Reducing photocathode-to-sample distance, thus reducing space-charge effects.
        3. Scaling to higher electron energies.
      2. UED MeV gun
      3. Other possibilities
    4. Every-electron cameras
    5. Issues with thin samples
  4. PROPAGATION DYNAMICS AND RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS
    1. Physical effects
    2. Modeling UED systems—state of the literature
    3. Modeling UED systems—results
    4. Modeling DTEM
  5. PRACTICAL ASPECTS
    1. Pulse-length measurement
    2. Determining time zero
    3. Pulse compression
    4. Pulsed high voltage for improved pulse-length control
    5. Number of electrons needed to form an image or diffraction pattern
  6. APPLICATIONS
    1. Materials science applications
      1. Melting
      2. Other solid-state phase transformations
      3. Surface structural dynamics
    2. Ultrafast electron crystallography in biology
    3. Chemistry applications
  7. CONCLUSION
    1. Limits
    2. Outlook

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KEYWORDS and PACS

Keywords

high-speed optical techniques, reviews, electron diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, space charge, electron guns, cameras

PACS

  • 07.78.+s

    Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers

  • 06.60.Jn

    High-speed techniques (microsecond to femtosecond)

ARTICLE DATA

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http://link.aip.org/link/doi/10.1063/1.1927699

PUBLICATION DATA

ISSN:

0021-8979 (print)  
1089-7550 (online)

Publisher:

$abstract.society.value is a Member of CrossRef American Institute of Physics

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