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15 May 2003

Volume 93, Issue 10, pp. 5855-8792

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Electronic noise due to multiple trap levels in homogeneous solids and in space-charge layers

Carolyne M. Van Vliet

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6068 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1563291 (10 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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A near-exact expression is derived for carrier-density fluctuations associated with multiple trap levels, interacting with one band only (say, the conduction band), using the many-variate Master Equation. The canonical constraint is handled with the Darwin–Fowler method. For a homogeneous solid with a discrete number of traps the spectrum consists of a sum of Lorentzians, as expected. For the case of a continuously distributed energy range, the results do not support a Bernamont–Surdin–McWhorter 1/f-like envelope spectrum; on the contrary, no more than two decades of 1/f noise can be expected. The situation is different, however, when band-bending occurs. Employing a Green’s function approach, developed by us previously, we give a formal complete result, which can be evaluated when Ec(r) is known. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
Show PACS
72.70.+m Noise processes and phenomena
05.40.Ca Noise
71.55.-i Impurity and defect levels
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
77.22.Jp Dielectric breakdown and space-charge effects

Grain boundary transport in x-ray irradiated polycrystalline diamond

G. Conte, M. C. Rossi, S. Salvatori, F. Fabbri, S. Loreti, P. Ascarelli, E. Cappelli, and D. Trucchi

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6078 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1565191 (6 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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The transport properties of a “thin” polycrystalline diamond film are analyzed after the sample exposure to 8.06-keV x-ray radiation. Structure and morphology of the as-grown film have been evaluated by Raman, x-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy techniques. The transport properties have been investigated by measuring dark current–voltage characteristics in the temperature range of 60 to 360 K. Ohmic transport has been evidenced on the as-grown film up to 1.16×105 V/cm. After irradiation, nonlinear contributions to the dark current have been evidenced and related to field-assisted thermal ionization of traps. Below 200 K, hopping mechanisms have been observed. Correlations have been found among x-ray irradiation, density of traps involved in the transport processes, and the nonhomogeneous nature of the sample. A simple model of the grain boundary structure is proposed to explain the observations. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.61.Ng Insulators
61.80.Cb X-ray effects
61.72.Mm Grain and twin boundaries
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Mixing of interface dipole and band bending at organic/metal interfaces in the case of exponentially distributed transport states

G. Paasch, H. Peisert, M. Knupfer, J. Fink, and S. Scheinert

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6084 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1562731 (6 pages) | Cited 24 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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The interface dipole for organic adlayers on metal substrates, as determined by photoemission spectroscopy, is often almost as large (>80%) as the built-in potential determined from the ionization potential and the transport gap. Based on our experimental data and the formal description of the band bending in the thin layer, it is shown that the generally accepted view on the interface of thin organic adlayers with a metal substrate must be refined. First, besides band bending one has in the layer also floating of the potential expressed by the finite value of the potential at the outer surface of the layer. Second, for the usually observed large interface dipole, band bending is negligible as long as the electronic states are well defined in energy. It is demonstrated that an exponential distribution of the transport states, with a width of the distribution that is large compared to the thermal energy, leads to a drastic modification of this picture. For CuPc and two fluorinated CuPc’s a band bending of the magnitude of the measured interface dipole is caused within the first 2 nm of the organic adlayer by a width of the distribution of εa≈300 meV. Even for a much narrower distribution (εa=100 meV) a considerable part of the interface dipole arises from the band bending for cases with a large built-in potential. Consequently, one has to expect that the measured interface dipole within a layer of about 2 nm from the interface has a considerable contribution from the normal band bending mechanism in a system with exponentially distributed tails of the transport states. Beyond this layer of some atomic distances the band bending will be small. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces

Electrical conductivity in metal/3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride/metal structures

Robert Hudej and Gvido Bratina

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6090 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1568525 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Samples comprising 1-μm-thick layers of 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA) sandwiched between top-most In contact and bottom-most Ag contact were synthesized on n-Si(100) substrates. Current–voltage (I–V) characteristics were measured on the structures with all the layers evaporated in sequence, and on the structures with air exposed PTCDA/In and Ag/PTCDA interfaces. The current transport in the structures fabricated without interruption of vacuum is controlled by the space charge and by the traps. Air exposure of the In/PTCDA interface introduces additional trap sites in the PTCDA layer, yielding the space-charge-limited current in the presence of traps, exponentially distributed in energy, and with a hopping transport mobility. Air exposure of the Ag/PTCDA interface introduces a discrete level of traps in addition to exponentially distributed traps. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures

Nitrogen-related electron traps in Ga(As,N) layers (⩽3% N)

P. Krispin, V. Gambin, J. S. Harris, and K. H. Ploog

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6095 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1568523 (5 pages) | Cited 31 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Capacitance spectroscopy is used to examine the compositional dependence of deep levels in Si-doped Ga(As,N) layers grown on GaAs. We find two predominant electron traps at about 0.80 and 1.1 eV above the valence band edge EV, which do not depend on composition. For N contents above 0.1% N, the concentration of the acceptor-like gap level at EV+1.1 eV strongly increases and leads to a distinct reduction of the donor doping efficiency in Ga(As,N) layers. Based on theoretical prediction, this electron trap is tentatively associated with a split interstitial defect containing a nitrogen and an arsenic atom on the same As lattice site [(AsN)As]. The trap at EV+0.80 eV likely corresponds to nitrogen dimers, i.e., two N atoms on a single As site [(NN)As]. When approaching the critical layer thickness, this electron trap is increasingly generated during growth. The dimer defect can be removed by rapid thermal annealing at 720 °C after growth, in contrast to the stable bulk level at EV+1.1 eV. By the formation of both N-related defects, the tensile strain in Ga(As,N) is reduced. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters

Fabrication of two-dimensional electron systems by focused ion beam doping of III/V semiconductor heterostructures

Cedrik Meier, Dirk Reuter, Christof Riedesel, and Andreas D. Wieck

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6100 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1563032 (7 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Two-dimensional electron systems have been fabricated by focused ion beam implantation of Si dopant ions in undoped III/V heterostructures grown by molecular beam epitaxy. With this method, lateral patterning of two-dimensional electron gases is possible while the planarity of the sample surface is conserved. In this paper, we present a systematic study of this technique and discuss its potential for applications. In detail, different base material systems are experimentally investigated and compared. The electronic properties of the samples are characterized by low-field Hall measurements, capacitance–voltage spectroscopy, and measurements of the longitudinal magnetoresistance at low temperatures. The dependence of the electronic properties on the implantation parameters is discussed. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.63.Hs Quantum wells
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
85.40.Ry Impurity doping, diffusion and ion implantation technology
81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
73.21.Fg Quantum wells
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)

Analysis of the kinetics for interface state generation following hole injection

J. F. Zhang, C. Z. Zhao, G. Groeseneken, and R. Degraeve

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6107 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1567059 (10 pages) | Cited 8 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Interface state generation is a major reliability issue for metal–oxide–semiconductor based devices. The generation can take place not only during stresses, but also after terminating the stress. Our attention is focused on analyzing the dynamic behavior of the generation after substrate hot hole injection. Despite previous efforts in this area, the generation kinetics is not fully understood, and there is insufficient information on the process limiting the generation rate. We start by showing that the normalized generation kinetics is insensitive to either the defect density or the processing condition. We then investigate the effect of various stressing parameters on the kinetics, including the oxide field strength during and posthole injection, the stress time, the energy and current of hot holes. This is followed by examining why the available models are inapplicable in our cases, including hydrogen transportation, trapped hole conversion, and coupling models. Finally, we propose both hydrogen emission and detrapping of a certain type of hole traps as the rate limiting processes, and the relative importance of these two is addressed. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
85.30.Tv Field effect devices

Contact resistance in organic transistors that use source and drain electrodes formed by soft contact lamination

Jana Zaumseil, Kirk W. Baldwin, and John A. Rogers

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6117 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1568157 (8 pages) | Cited 138 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Soft contact lamination of source/drain electrodes supported by gold-coated high-resolution rubber stamps against organic semiconductor films can yield high-performance organic transistors. This article presents a detailed study of the electrical properties of these devices, with an emphasis on the nature of the laminated contacts with the p- and n-type semiconductors pentacene and copper hexadecafluorophthalocyanine, respectively. The analysis uses models developed for characterizing amorphous silicon transistors. The results demonstrate that the parasitic resistances related to the laminated contacts and their coupling to the transistor channel are considerably lower than those associated with conventional contacts formed by evaporation of gold electrodes directly on top of the organic semiconductors. These and other attractive features of transistors built by soft contact lamination suggest that they may be important for basic and applied studies in plastic electronics and nanoelectronic systems based on unconventional materials. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Cg Contact resistance, contact potential

Investigations on the nature of observed ferromagnetism and possible spin polarization in Co-doped anatase TiO2 thin films

D. H. Kim, J. S. Yang, K. W. Lee, S. D. Bu, D.-W. Kim, T. W. Noh, S.-J. Oh, Y.-W. Kim, J.-S. Chung, H. Tanaka, H. Y. Lee, T. Kawai, J. Y. Won, S. H. Park, and J. C. Lee

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6125 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1568524 (8 pages) | Cited 36 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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High-quality epitaxial thin films of Co-doped anatase TiO2 (Co:TiO2) were grown epitaxially on SrTiO3 (001) substrates by using pulsed laser deposition with in-situ reflection high-energy electron diffraction. The oxygen partial pressure, PO2, during the growth was systematically varied. As PO2 decreased, the growth behavior altered from a two-dimensional layer-by-layer-like growth to a three-dimensional island-like pattern. Electrical conductivity and saturation magnetization increased, seemingly consistent with the picture of carrier-induced ferromagnetism. However, we also found that the spatial distribution of Co ions became highly nonuniform and the chemical state of Co ions changed from ionic to metallic. All of these PO2 dependences, even including the transport and the magnetic properties, can be explained in terms of the formation of cobalt clusters, whose existence was clearly demonstrated by transmission–electron–microscope studies. Our work clearly indicates that the cobalt clustering will result in the room-temperature ferromagnetism observed in our Co:TiO2 films. To check the possible spin polarization of carriers in Co:TiO2 films, we also fabricated a heterojunction composed of a ferromagnetic Co:TiO2, an insulating SrTiO3, and a ferromagnetic half-metallic (La,Ba)MnO3 layer. When the magnetic field was varied, we could not observe any changes in its I–V characteristic curves, which suggests that there might be little spin-polarization effect in the anatase Co:TiO2 layer. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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75.50.Dd Nonmetallic ferromagnetic materials
75.70.Ak Magnetic properties of monolayers and thin films
75.25.-j Spin arrangements in magnetically ordered materials (including neutron and spin-polarized electron studies, synchrotron-source x-ray scattering, etc.)
75.47.Pq Other materials
75.60.Ej Magnetization curves, hysteresis, Barkhausen and related effects
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
75.70.Cn Magnetic properties of interfaces (multilayers, superlattices, heterostructures)
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

Single-chip device for tunneling time measurements

Daniela Dragoman and Mircea Dragoman

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6133 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1567058 (4 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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A single-chip mesoscopic device is proposed for the measurement of the tunneling time of electrons or holes through various mesoscopic structures. The method is based on the possibility of generating spatially separated electrons and holes that are transported with a controlled velocity and separation over a quantum wire. The electrons and holes, subsequently separated in distinct waveguides, are allowed to recombine after propagating through carefully controlled distances. The electron and hole coincidence requirement is satisfied by compensating the tunneling time of one type of carrier through an engineered mesoscopic structure with the magnetic field induced delay of the other carrier type. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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85.35.Ds Quantum interference devices
85.35.Gv Single electron devices
85.35.Be Quantum well devices (quantum dots, quantum wires, etc.)
73.23.Hk Coulomb blockade; single-electron tunneling
73.40.Gk Tunneling
81.07.Vb Quantum wires
73.63.Nm Quantum wires

Increased mobility from regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) field-effect transistors

Guangming Wang, James Swensen, Daniel Moses, and Alan J. Heeger

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6137 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1568526 (5 pages) | Cited 164 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Relatively high mobilities, μ=0.2 cm2 V−1 s−1 in the accumulation mode and μ=0.17 cm2 V−1 s−1 in the depletion mode, are reported for regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (RR-P3HT) in field-effect transistors (FETs). Significantly higher mobility is obtained from FETs in which the RR-P3HT film is applied by dip-coating to a thickness of only 20−40 Å. These observations suggest that structural order of the semiconducting polymer at the interface between the semiconducting polymer and the SiO2 gate insulator is of paramount importance for achieving high carrier mobility. Heat treatment under nitrogen at 160 °C for 3 min increases the on/off ratio of the FET. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices

Electrical and optical properties of the CdS quantum wells of CdS/ZnSe heterostructures

M. Dremel, H. Priller, M. Grün, C. Klingshirn, and V. Kažukauskas

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6142 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1568532 (8 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Earlier we reported the investigation of the electrical properties of selectively doped and degenerate CdS/ZnSe quantum heterostructures grown by molecular beam epitaxy [V. Kažukauskas, M. Grün, St. Petillon, A. Storzum, and C. Klingshirn, Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 395 (1999)]. The maximum Hall mobilities in these heterostructures were found to be less than 400 cm2/Vs. In the present work we analyze in detail the scattering mechanisms in order to increase the carrier mobility and to optimize these quantum structures. We demonstrate that the Hall mobility can reach in the CdS quantum wells at low temperatures 2800 cm2/V s for slightly doped structures, having an effective sheet carrier density 2.6×1011 cm−2. In these structures the mobility is mostly limited by interface alloying scattering. At high doping levels carriers become redistributed between the quantum well and the ZnSe doped layer. This causes the parallel conductivity phenomena, which diminishes the effective mobility. Near room temperature the scattering by optical phonons prevails which is superimposed by dislocation scattering. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
Show PACS
73.63.Hs Quantum wells
81.07.St Quantum wells
78.67.De Quantum wells
81.05.Dz II-VI semiconductors
73.21.Fg Quantum wells
72.20.Dp General theory, scattering mechanisms
72.20.Fr Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
72.20.My Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects
71.38.-k Polarons and electron-phonon interactions
72.10.Di Scattering by phonons, magnons, and other nonlocalized excitations
72.10.Fk Scattering by point defects, dislocations, surfaces, and other imperfections (including Kondo effect)

Field-dependent effective temperature and variable range hopping: Application to dark dc conductivity in doped a-Si:H

V. I. Arkhipov, E. V. Emelianova, and G. J. Adriaenssens

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6150 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1565673 (4 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Field and temperature dependencies of the dark dc hopping conductivity are calculated for an algebraic energy distribution of localized states near the Fermi level. These dependencies are shown to merge in a universal dependence on a field-dependent effective temperature Teff. An analytical expression for Teff is derived. The analytic results agree quantitatively with experimental data obtained by Nebel et al. [Phys. Rev. B 46, 6803 (1992)] for boron- and phosphorous-doped a-Si:H. Although the effective temperature does depend upon a particular choice of the density-of-states (DOS) distribution this dependence is not very strong for DOS functions that are not too steep near the Fermi level. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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72.20.Ee Mobility edges; hopping transport
72.80.Cw Elemental semiconductors
72.80.Ng Disordered solids
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Thermoelectric properties of electrodeposited CuNi alloys on Si

R. G. Delatorre, M. L. Sartorelli, A. Q. Schervenski, A. A. Pasa, and S. Güths

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6154 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1569432 (5 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Thin films with the composition of the constantan alloy (a solid solution with 35 to 50 wt. % of Ni in Cu) have a high-thermoelectric power, which allows the fabrication of very sensitive heat-flux sensors based on planar technology. In this article, the thermoelectric properties of CuxNi100−x thin films electrodeposited on silicon were studied as a function of the composition, temperature, and thickness. The electrodeposition of thin layers on silicon is an important step for the integration of thermal sensors with semiconductor technology. The CuxNi100−x alloys were electrodeposited potentiostatically at room temperature, from a citrate electrolyte containing both copper and nickel sulfates. The layer composition was controlled by the applied potential in the range from pure copper (at −0.4 V/SCE) up to a solid solution of about 25 wt. % Cu in Ni (at −1.2 V/SCE). Extremely high values of thermoelectric power were measured for very thin layers of Cu40Ni60 on Si, showing a strong influence of the substrate. By considering the system as a thermoelectric bilayer and extracting the contribution of the semiconductor, thermopower values for the Cu40Ni60 alloys comparable to the expected ones for constantan wires were obtained. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.50.Lw Thermoelectric effects
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
81.15.Pq Electrodeposition, electroplating
72.15.Jf Thermoelectric and thermomagnetic effects
82.45.Qr Electrodeposition and electrodissolution
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification

Electronic line-up in light-emitting diodes with alkali-halide/metal cathodes

T. M. Brown, R. H. Friend, I. S. Millard, D. J. Lacey, T. Butler, J. H. Burroughes, and F. Cacialli

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6159 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1562739 (14 pages) | Cited 67 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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The electronic nature of metal-semiconductor contacts is a fundamental issue in the understanding of semiconductor device physics, because such contacts control charge injection, and therefore play a major role in determining the electron/hole population in the semiconductor itself. This role is particularly important for organic semiconductors as they are generally used in their pristine, undoped form. Here, we review our progress in the understanding of the energy level line-up in finished, blue-emitting, polyfluorene-based light-emitting diodes, which exploit LiF and CsF thin films in combination with Ca and Al to obtain cathodes with low injection barriers. We have used electroabsorption measurements, as they allow the noninvasive determination of the built-in potential when changing the cathode. This provides precious experimental information on the alteration of the polymer/cathode interfacial energy level line-up. The latter is found to depend strongly on the electrode work function. Thus, the Schottky–Mott model for the energy level alignment is found to be a better first-order approximation than those models where strong pinning or large interface dipoles determine the alignment (e.g., Bardeen model), except for electrodes that extensively react with the polymer, and introduce deep gap states. In addition, we show results that validate the approximation of rigid tilting of polymer energy levels with bias (for biases for which no significant injection of carriers occurs). To investigate further the consequences of the electronic line-up on device operation, we complemented the electroabsorption measurements with characterization of the emissive and transport properties of the light-emitting diodes, and confirmed that the cathodic barrier lowering in CsF/Ca/Al and LiF/Ca/Al electrodes leads to the best improvements in electron injection. We found that luminance and overall current are greatly affected by the barrier-reducing cathodes, indicating a truly bipolar transport, with comparable electron and hole currents. We also found significant indications of CsF/Ca/Al cathodes strongly reacting with the polymer, which is suggestive of CsF dissociation and diffusion in the bulk of the polymer. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
01.30.Rr Surveys and tutorial papers; resource letters
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Enhanced spontaneous emission from InAs/GaAs self-organized quantum dots in a GaAs photonic-crystal-based microcavity

Peichen Yu, Pallab Bhattacharya, and Jui-Ching Cheng

J. Appl. Phys. 93, 6173 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1566470 (4 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 9 May 2003

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Spontaneous emission characteristics of self-organized InAs/GaAs quantum dots embedded in a photonic-crystal-based microcavity are theoretically investigated. Results are obtained from a three-dimensional quasi-mode analysis of the photonic-crystal microcavity and through calculations of energy levels and eigenstates for electrons and holes in self-organized quantum dots. The spontaneous emission rate from quantum dots is significantly enhanced by up to a factor of 14, compared to that in free space. In addition, the maximum coupling efficiency to the fundamental mode is close to unity. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
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78.67.Hc Quantum dots
42.70.Qs Photonic bandgap materials
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