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1 Jan 2001

Volume 89, Issue 1, pp. 1-812

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Space-charge controlled fast electron beam pulsing

Chong-Yu Ruan and Manfred Fink

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 654 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1286331 (8 pages)

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The generation of fast electron beam pulses by voltages in the range of 1 V is presented. Two emission mechanisms are described, where the one which utilizes thermal electron confinement in the proximity of a sharp filament proves to be more advantageous. We have observed pulsewidth of 5 ns, limited only by our recording instruments. Due to the superb optical quality and tunability, this electron beam modulation mechanism can find applications in time-resolved diffraction/imaging, microwave system, time-of-flight spectrometer, and electron beam lithography. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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07.77.Ka Charged-particle beam sources and detectors
29.25.Bx Electron sources
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
07.81.+a Electron and ion spectrometers
29.30.Aj Charged-particle spectrometers: electric and magnetic
29.30.Ep Charged-particle spectroscopy
41.75.Fr Electron and positron beams
07.57.Hm Infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave, and radiowave sources

Evaluation of the hydrostaticity of a helium-pressure medium with powder x-ray diffraction techniques

Kenichi Takemura

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 662 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1328410 (7 pages) | Cited 96 times

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The hydrostaticity of a helium-pressure medium has been evaluated with powder x-ray diffraction techniques up to 77 GPa at room temperature. The relative change of d values and the broadening of diffraction peaks have been investigated for three cubic substances, CeO2, the high-pressure rocksalt phase of ZnO, and Au. I observed no evidence of nonhydrostaticity of the helium-pressure medium to at least 50 GPa. The powder x-ray diffraction method has been compared with the ruby fluorescence method in order to get a better understanding of nonhydrostatic stress conditions. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
67.80.-s Quantum solids

Extrapolation chamber response in low-energy x radiation standard beams

Simone K. Dias and Linda V. E. Caldas

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 669 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1332416 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Measurements of absorbed dose rates in air and tissue produced by low-energy x radiation are often difficult to obtain with accuracy. The recommended instruments for these applications are extrapolation chambers. The performance of an extrapolation chamber, developed at IPEN, was studied in low energy x radiation standard beams in relation to its response linearity, extrapolation curves and energy dependence. The results obtained indicate that the developed chamber is suitable for x radiation measurements. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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87.56.Da Ancillary equipment
87.53.-j Effects of ionizing radiation on biological systems
07.85.-m X- and γ-ray instruments
29.40.Cs Gas-filled counters: ionization chambers, proportional, and avalanche counters

Guiding effects of electric and magnetic fields on the plasma output of a cathodic arc magnetic filter

T. Zhang, D. T. K. Kwok, P. K. Chu, and I. G. Brown

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 672 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1330240 (4 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A magnetic filter was inserted between the cathodic arc plasma source and chamber to reduce the amount of macroparticles transmitted from the plasma to the sample. The plasma output of the magnetic filter was determined as a function of magnetic field and bias voltage, for the cases when the bias was applied to the entire duct wall or to a Bilek bias plate alone. The factors affecting plasma diffusion in the duct were investigated. As well as collisional and inhomogeneous magnetic field effects, our computer simulation and experimental results indicate that the E×B drift results in an additional diffusion flux for the case when a Bilek bias plate is used. Hence the Bilek biasing mode results in a lower plasma output than for the case in which the entire duct is biased. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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52.77.Dq Plasma-based ion implantation and deposition
52.80.Mg Arcs; sparks; lightning; atmospheric electricity
52.25.Fi Transport properties

Compressional acoustic wave generation in microdroplets of water in contact with quartz crystal resonators

L. McKenna, M. I. Newton, G. McHale, R. Lucklum, and J. Schroeder

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 676 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1331337 (5 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Resonating quartz crystals can be used for sensing liquid properties by completely immersing one side of the crystal in a bulk liquid. The in-plane shearing motion of the crystal generates shear waves which are damped by a viscous liquid. Thus only a thin layer of fluid characterized by the penetration depth of the acoustic wave is sensed by a thickness shear mode resonator. Previous studies have shown that the finite lateral extent of the crystal results in the generation of compressional waves, which may cause deviations from the theoretical behavior predicted by a one-dimensional model. In this work, we report on a simultaneous optical and acoustic wave investigation of the quartz crystal resonator response to sessile microdroplets of water, which only wet a localized portion of the surface. The relationship between initial change in frequency and distance from the center of the crystal has been measured for the compressional wave generation regions of the crystal using 2 and 5 μl droplets. For these volumes the initial heights do not represent integer multiples of a half of the acoustic wavelength and so are not expected to initially produce compressional wave resonance. A systematic study of the acoustic response to evaporating microdroplets of water has then been recorded for droplets deposited in the compressional wave generation regions of the crystals whilst simultaneously recording the top and side views by videomicroscopy. The data are compared to theoretically expected values of droplet height for constructive acoustic interference. Results are highly reproducible and there is good correlation between theory and experiment. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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43.58.Kr Spectrum and frequency analyzers and filters; acoustical and electrical oscillographs; photoacoustic spectrometers; acoustical delay lines and resonators
85.50.-n Dielectric, ferroelectric, and piezoelectric devices

CO2 laser–plume interaction in materials processing

K. R. Kim and D. F. Farson

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 681 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1329668 (8 pages) | Cited 11 times

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In laser materials processing, localized evaporation caused by focused laser radiation forms a plume of mixed vapor and ambient gas above the material surface. The beam is refracted and absorbed as it traverses the plume, thus modifying its power density on the surface. In this work, plume–beam interaction is studied using an axisymmetric, high-temperature gas-dynamic model of a plume formed by vapor from an iron surface. The beam propagation in the plume is calculated from the paraxial wave equation including absorption and refraction. The simulation results quantify the effects of plasma plume properties on the beam radius and laser power density variations at the material surface. It is shown that absorption and refraction in the plume have significant impacts on the laser–material interaction. Absorption of the beam in the plume has much less direct effect on the power density at the material surface than refraction does. However, absorption is essential for the formation of the plume, without which there is no refraction. Helium gas is more efficient than argon for reducing the beam refraction and absorption effects. Laser energy reflected from the material surface has significant effects on the plume properties. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
52.38.Mf Laser ablation

Secondary electron emission from diamond: Physical modeling and application to scanning electron microscopy

P. Ascarelli, E. Cappelli, F. Pinzari, M. C. Rossi, S. Salvatori, P. G. Merli, and A. Migliori

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 689 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1326854 (8 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Secondary electron emission from diamond films is studied as a function of the primary electron beam energy and bulk material properties. A formulation of a simple model of the secondary electron emission coefficient, as a function of the primary electron beam energy, has been found to be helpful in defining physical criteria able to guide the optimization of the diamond film electron emission performance. The secondary electron mean escape depth deduced from the model is indeed related to the density of defects in the material and represents the main factor in determining the low energy secondary electron yield. These results are supported by Raman spectroscopy measurements, indicating a lower graphitic content and a higher crystalline quality of the diamond phase in films showing better secondary electron and photoemission yields. We demonstrate that a diamond film, acting as a stable and proportional electron multiplier, can be used as a converter of backscattered electrons into secondary electrons in scanning electron microscopy. It will be shown that the use of a diamond film converter is suitable to improve the signal to noise ratio of images providing an enhanced compositional contrast. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Db Elemental semiconductors and insulators
79.20.Hx Electron impact: secondary emission
78.30.Am Elemental semiconductors and insulators

Investigations of the plume accompanying pulsed ultraviolet laser ablation of graphite in vacuum

Frederik Claeyssens, Robert J. Lade, Keith N. Rosser, and Michael N. R. Ashfold

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 697 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1330548 (13 pages) | Cited 30 times

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The plume accompanying 193 nm pulsed laser ablation of graphite in vacuum has been studied using wavelength, time and spatially resolved optical emission spectroscopy and by complementary Faraday cup measurements of the positively charged ions. The temporal and spatial extent of the optical emissions are taken as evidence that the emitting species result from electron–ion recombination processes, and subsequent radiative cascade from the high n,l Rydberg states that result. The distribution of C neutral emission is symmetric about the surface normal, while the observed C+ emission appears localized in the solid angle between the laser propagation axis and the surface normal. However, Faraday cup measurements of the ion yield and velocity distributions, taken as a function of scattering angle and incident pulse energy, indicate that the total ion flux distribution is peaked along the surface normal. The derived ion velocity distributions are used as input for a two-dimensional model which explains the observed anisotropy of the C+ emission in terms of preferential multiphoton excitation and ionization of C species in the leading part of the expanding plasma ball that are exposed to the greatest incident 193 nm photon flux, prior to electron–ion recombination and subsequent radiative decay. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Photoemission studies of ZnSe epilayers grown on GaAs(111)B surface

P. X. Feng, R. C. G. Leckey, J. D. Riley, N. Brack, P. J. Pigram, M. Hollering, and L. Ley

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 710 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1327606 (8 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The growth and characterization of ZnSe epilayers on GaAs(111)B was studied. Insight into the formation mechanism of this type of surface, interface, and bulk has been provided by photoemission spectroscopy. When Zn and Se are deposited, Se reacts with As to form Se–As bonds. Therefore, the electron mean free path obtained from the intensity variation of the surface As layer is less than that from the As bulk intensity since its emission is transferred from the surface peak into chemically shifted As peak. Deposition of ZnSe results in a substrate core level shift of 0.59 eV toward lower binding energy. A value of 0.91 eV for the valence band offset, with the valence band maximum of ZnSe below that of GaAs, was obtained. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Dz II-VI semiconductors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds

Monte Carlo study of secondary electron emission

Z. J. Ding, X. D. Tang, and R. Shimizu

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 718 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1331645 (9 pages) | Cited 35 times

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Based on our previous Monte Carlo simulation model of electron interactions with solids, including cascade secondary electron production, in which an optical dielectric function was used to describe electron energy loss and the associated secondary electron excitation, we have systematically investigated secondary electron generation and emission for 19 metals. The calculated secondary yield curve for primary beam energy ranging from 100 eV to 2 keV was found to correspond with the experimental universal curve. The dependence of the secondary yield on the work function was studied numerically, leading to a remarkable scattered deviation from Baroody’s relationship. This deviation shows that the secondary yield relates to different aspects of behavior by electrons in a metal, such as the cascade production process, the stopping power and specific energy loss mechanism for a sample, and the dependence on the electron density of states. The results provide an explanation for the scattered data on the experimental yield versus the work function. The calculations indicate that the characteristic energy loss of primaries may result in a corresponding feature in the energy distribution of secondaries. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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79.20.Hx Electron impact: secondary emission
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
71.45.Gm Exchange, correlation, dielectric and magnetic response functions, plasmons

Bulk-quantity Si nanosphere chains prepared from semi-infinite length Si nanowires

H. Y. Peng, N. Wang, W. S. Shi, Y. F. Zhang, C. S. Lee, and S. T. Lee

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 727 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1328786 (5 pages) | Cited 29 times

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Bulk-quantity Si nanosphere chains have been fabricated. This is accomplished via the spheroidization of Si nanowires of semi-infinite lengths. The process has been extensively investigated by transmission electron microscopy. The nanosphere chains consisted of equally spaced Si crystalline nanospheres connected by Si-oxide bars. The transition from Si nanowires to Si nanosphere chains was determined by the annealing temperature, ambient pressure, initial Si nanowire diameters, and the oxide state of the outer layers of Si nanowires. The relationships between the geometry (size and spacing) of Si nanospheres, the initial state (diameter and oxide state) of Si nanowires, and the experimental conditions are discussed. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.07.Vb Quantum wires
81.16.Rf Micro- and nanoscale pattern formation
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
81.05.Cy Elemental semiconductors

Dynamic simulation of process control of the reactive sputter process and experimental results

N. Malkomes and M. Vergöhl

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 732 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1328407 (8 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The control of reactive sputter processes has been dynamically simulated by integrating the Larsson differential equations. This was done by employing a fast Runge–Kutta step control algorithm, allowing us to simulate sputtering with more than 20-fold real time speed on a pentium 166 Mhz. A simple proportional integral differential (PID) algorithm was implemented to simulate (i) the partial pressure control via reactive gas flow at a fixed current and (ii) the partial pressure control via current at a fixed reactive gas flow. The control cycle time was varied with respect to real life process control. These simulations show that arbitrary setpoints on the stationary s curve resulting from the steady state Larsson equations can be stabilized. However, the cycle time of the PID controller has to be small enough, e.g., less than 600 ms, for a reliable control. The setpoints in the transition mode are highly unstable, so that the process drifts immediately into one of the two corresponding stable steady states (typically within about 3–15 s) after freezing the control. In addition these computations were compared with experimental control results of reactively sputtered TiO2 and Nb2O5 films deposited by the midfrequency technique. In both cases the total s curve was stabilized at a constant oxygen flow. The process stabilization was performed at power densities of up to 5 W/cm2, limited by the generator output. For the oxygen partial pressure measurements a λ-probe with optimized speed was used. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
02.30.Hq Ordinary differential equations
02.60.Jh Numerical differentiation and integration

Influence of particle adsorption probability on the stoichiometry of thin films grown by pulsed laser deposition

T. E. Itina

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 740 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1328061 (7 pages) | Cited 4 times

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An expansion of a bicomponent laser plume into a dilute ambient gas is simulated using a combined direct simulation-random trajectory Monte Carlo method. The stoichiometry of thin films deposited from laser-desorbed material on a flat substrate is examined. In the case of energy-dependent particle adsorption probability, the dependencies of deposition rate on the background pressure are shown to be nonmonotonic with maximums at low gas pressure. In addition, an increase in the ratio of light to heavy species was obtained at low pressure. We demonstrate that these results can be attributed to the interplay between the effects of collisions with the background gas on the fluxes of particles arriving at the substrate and on the adsorption probability of the species. The calculation results are consistent with recent experiments. The study is of interest for the optimization of the experimental conditions during pulsed laser deposition of multicomponent materials. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Aa Theory and models of film growth
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.66.Bi Elemental solids
61.66.Dk Alloys

Microstructure and wet oxidation of low-temperature-grown amorphous (Al/Ga,As)

K. L. Chang, G. W. Pickrell, D. E. Wohlert, J. H. Epple, H. C. Lin, K. Y. Cheng, and K. C. Hsieh

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 747 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1326466 (6 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Amorphous and polycrystalline compounds of (Ga,As) and (Al,As) grown at very low temperatures by molecular-beam epitaxy are characterized. The ultimate microstructure and the amount of excess arsenic incorporated in the (Ga,As) or (Al,As) layers are found to depend on the arsenic overpressure during the low-temperature growth. With lower arsenic overpressure, a polycrystalline structure prevails and less excess arsenic is observed inside the layer. In contrast, a high incorporation of excess arsenic achieved by high-arsenic overpressures leads to the formation of amorphous films. Upon wet oxidation, the lateral oxidation rate of (Al,As) is found to depend on the crystallinity of the (Al,As) layer and the amount of excess arsenic. During the same process, recrystallization proceeds in the (Ga,As) layer. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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61.43.Dq Amorphous semiconductors, metals, and alloys
81.05.Gc Amorphous semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
81.65.Mq Oxidation

Growth of highly transparent nanocrystalline diamond films and a spectroscopic study of the growth

L. C. Chen, P. D. Kichambare, K. H. Chen, J.-J. Wu, J. R. Yang, and S. T. Lin

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 753 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1327608 (7 pages) | Cited 22 times

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A series of nanocrystalline diamond films with grain size ranged from 4 nm to a few hundreds of nanometers were grown by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Effects of the substrate pretreatment and the methane fraction in the source gas on the microstructure, surface roughness, and optical transmittance of the resultant films were studied. Specifically, comparison was made between two different sizes, 4 nm and 0.1 μm, of the diamond powder used for substrate pretreatment. Interestingly, the films grown on substrates scratched with coarser powder (0.1 μm) can be smoother and more transparent than those on substrates scratched with finer powder (4 nm), despite of the similarity in the grain size of these two types of films prepared at high methane fractions. It is also demonstrated that the major factor that controls the optical transparency is the surface roughness irrespective of the grain size as long as the sp2-bonded carbon in the film is avoided. In situ optical emission spectroscopy was employed to monitor the plasma chemistry, from which possible growth species for the films were discussed. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.ub Fullerenes and related materials
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.66.Tr Fullerenes and related materials
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
78.40.Ri Fullerenes and related materials

Nb interaction with hydrogen plasma

Y. Nakamura, A. Busnyuk, H. Suzuki, Y. Nakahara, N. Ohyabu, and A. Livshits

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 760 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1331075 (7 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A niobium membrane was immersed in hydrogen plasma and could be electrically biased to vary the energy of bombarding ions in the range of 1–200 eV. The fluxes of plasma driven absorption and permeation were almost entirely governed by incident suprathermal neutrals (mostly, thermal atoms), whose energy does not depend on membrane bias, but the ions of controllable energy do affect the neutral-induced permeation through modifying the membrane surface. At the zero bias a high temperature-independent plasma driven permeation (superpermeation) was observed alongside of an enhanced absorption. Bombardment by ions of an energy higher than 50 eV resulted in a sharp decrease of the plasma driven permeation/retention and in an acceleration of boundary processes of absorption/reemission of thermal molecules. At ion energies below 50 eV, the effect of ion bombardment on the plasma driven permeation and the kinetic coefficients of boundary processes were nonmonotonic in ion energy, having a maximum at ∼10 eV. Both an in situ doping with O of the bulk of Nb and a membrane temperature increase reduced the effects of ion bombardment to their complete disappearance. Responsible for that was the replenishment by means of surface segregation of an oxygen monolayer sputtered by ion bombardment. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects
52.40.Mj Particle beam interactions in plasmas

Bismuth zinc niobate pyrochlore dielectric thin films for capacitive applications

Wei Ren, Susan Trolier-McKinstry, Clive A. Randall, and Thomas R. Shrout

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 767 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1328408 (8 pages) | Cited 97 times

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Bi2O3–ZnO–Nb2O5 pyrochlore thin films were prepared on platinum coated Si wafers using a metalorganic deposition process. The structures, morphologies, and dielectric properties of films with two compositions: (Bi1.5Zn0.5)(Zn0.5Nb1.5)O7 and Bi2(Zn1/3Nb2/3)2O7, were investigated. Thin films of (Bi1.5Zn0.5)(Zn0.5Nb1.5)O7 have a cubic pyrochlore phase when crystallized at 550 °C or higher. The crystal structure of Bi2(Zn1/3Nb2/3)2O7 thin films was dependent on the firing temperature; the films showed the cubic pyrochlore phase at temperatures below 650 °C, and a pseudo-orthorhombic pyrochlore structure at 750 °C. A mixture of cubic and pseudo-orthorhombic structures was found in thin films crystallized at 700 °C. (Bi1.5Zn0.5)(Zn0.5Nb1.5)O7 films fired at 750 °C had a dielectric constant of ∼150 and a negative temperature coefficient of capacitance of −400 ppm/°C. Bi2(Zn1/3Nb2/3)2O7 thin films fired at 750 °C had a smaller dielectric constant of ∼80 and a positive temperature coefficient of capacitance of 150 ppm/°C. The dielectric constants of the thin films are composition, structure, and firing temperature dependent. The loss tangents of both types of films were smaller than 0.008. Bias voltage dependence of dielectric constant showed that the cubic (Bi1.5Zn0.5)(Zn0.5Nb1.5)O7 films fired at 750 °C were tunable, while the pseudoorthorhombic Bi2(Zn1/3Nb2/3)2O7 films were nearly field independent. The relatively large dielectric constants, small loss tangents, controllable temperature coefficients of capacitance, and tunability of the dielectric constant suggests that Bi2O3–ZnO–Nb2O5 thin films have potential applications for integrated microwave components and decoupling capacitors. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
77.22.Gm Dielectric loss and relaxation
77.22.Ch Permittivity (dielectric function)
84.32.Tt Capacitors

Impedance of a ferromagnetic sandwich strip

A. Sukstanskii, V. Korenivski, and A. Gromov

J. Appl. Phys. 89, 775 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1330763 (8 pages) | Cited 9 times

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A theoretical approach for calculating the impedance of a three-layer sandwich, consisting of two metallic ferromagnetic layers separated by a non-magnetic conductive layer, is presented. The Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field coupled with the Landau–Lifshitz equations for the magnetization dynamics are solved, which enables one to describe the system over a wide frequency range, including the ferromagnetic resonance. Two sandwich strip structures are analyzed, both having thickness much less than the width, and the width much less than the length: a “closed” structure with the magnetic film closing at the edges along the width, and an “open” structure without flux closures where all the layers have the same width. The impedance for the two structures is calculated and analyzed as a function of the physical parameters of the device and frequency. The “closed” structure is more efficient magnetically and exhibits a highly inductive response to much higher frequencies than the “open” structure. The analytical results obtained are directly applicable to practical design of GHz inductive components. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
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75.70.Cn Magnetic properties of interfaces (multilayers, superlattices, heterostructures)
75.60.Ej Magnetization curves, hysteresis, Barkhausen and related effects
76.50.+g Ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and ferrimagnetic resonances; spin-wave resonance
73.61.-r Electrical properties of specific thin films
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