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1 Jun 1998

Volume 83, Issue 11, pp. 5609-7398

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Photorefractive properties of tungsten bronze ferroelectric lead barium niobate (Pb1−xBaxNb2O6) crystals

Myeongkyu Lee, Robert S. Feigelson, Alice Liu, and Lambertus Hesselink

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 5967 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367461 (6 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Lead barium niobate (Pb1−xBaxNb2O6) is a very promising material for photorefractive applications in that it has a high ferroelectric-to-paraelectric transition temperature (300–500 °C depending on composition) and simultaneously can have large electro-optic coefficients, because of the nearly vertical morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) near 1−x = 0.63. Pb1−xBaxNb2O6 crystals have been grown by the vertical Bridgman method for near-MPB compositions (0.5<1−x<0.6), and their photorefractive properties were investigated by the two wave mixing experiments. Material properties such as composition and absorption coefficient varied along the growth direction because of the incongruent charge composition and the nonuniform distribution of impurities. A maximum diffraction efficiency of 50% at λ = 514.5 nm was observed in a 3.2 mm thick nominally undoped as-grown crystal. The photorefractive sensitivity increased as the wavelength decreased. The gain coefficient also increased with decreasing wavelength, changing from 0.5 cm−1 at λ = 633 nm to above 8 cm−1 at λ = 465 nm. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
77.84.Bw Elements, oxides, nitrides, borides, carbides, chalcogenides, etc.
77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Nondestructive imaging and characterization of ferroelectric domains in periodically poled crystals

L. M. Eng, H.-J. Güntherodt, G. Rosenman, A. Skliar, M. Oron, M. Katz, and D. Eger

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 5973 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367462 (5 pages) | Cited 49 times

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We report the nondestructive investigation and visualization of periodically poled domains in ferroelectric potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP) crystals using polarization sensitive scanning force microscopy (SFM). Applying an alternating voltage technique to SFM allows ferroelectric domain wall resolution beyond 100 nm. Image contrast between KTP and Rb doped KTP, i.e., rubidium titanyl phosphate (RTP) regions arises from the differential piezoelectric response. We find the polarization vectors in both KTP and RTP to be aligned parallel to the negative z axes as deduced (a) when comparing our data with a ferroelectric reference sample, i.e., tri-glycine sulfate (b) from comparison of nanoscale hysteresis loops recorded on KTP and RTP, and (c) from direct domain switching in KTP applying very high electric fields between tip and counter electrode. The latter experiments show that nanoscale ferroelectric domains in KTP switch from the negative to the positive z-axes alignment for electric fields stronger than 750 V/cm. Nevertheless, spontaneous backswitching is observed after a couple of minutes. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.  
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77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
77.80.Fm Switching phenomena
77.22.Ej Polarization and depolarization
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects

Microstructure and dielectric properties of silicon nitride films deposited by electron cyclotron resonance plasma chemical vapor deposition

Chao Ye, Zhaoyuan Ning, Mingrong Shen, Shanhua Cheng, and Zhaoqiang Gan

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 5978 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367463 (7 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The microstructures and dielectric properties of silicon nitride (SiNx) films have been investigated. These films were prepared by permanent magnet electron cyclotron resonance plasma chemical vapor deposition by varying the substrate temperature between 56 and 400 °C and microwave power between 65 and 520 W. It exhibits a fractal structure with fractal dimension Df = 1.45 or fractal-like structures for the films deposited without additional heating. When the substrate temperature is raised above 200 °C, the uniform dense structure can be obtained. The frequency dependence of the dielectric constant (ϵ′) in the frequency range 5–106 Hz for the films deposited below 100 °C follows a three fractional power law of (ϵ′−ϵ∞′)∝ωni−l (i = 1, 2, and 3). The exponents ni are n1 = 0.73–0.93, n2 = 0.95–0.98, and n3 = 0.87–0.99 in the frequency range of 5–102 Hz, 102–104 Hz, and 104–106 Hz, respectively. The frequency dependence of ϵ′ also follows a single power law of (ϵ′−ϵ∞′)∝ωn−1 with n = 0.95–0.82 for the films deposited in the substrate temperature range of 200–400 °C. The dielectric property of the single power law is in agreement with the intrinsic dielectric property of Si3N4 films, which is related to electron hopping conduction. The dielectric property of the fractional power law is considered to relate to the fractal structure of SiNx films. These are partially in agreement with that of the many-cluster anomalous conduction theory of fractal structure. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
77.84.Bw Elements, oxides, nitrides, borides, carbides, chalcogenides, etc.
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
77.22.Ch Permittivity (dielectric function)
72.20.Fr Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
72.80.Sk Insulators
73.61.Ng Insulators

Evidence for oxide formation from the single and multiphoton excitation of a porous silicon surface or silicon “nanoparticles”

James L. Gole and David A. Dixon

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 5985 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367464 (7 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Potential oxidation as monitored by single and multiphoton excitation and associated with the laser induced photoluminescence (PL) from silicon nanoparticles and a porous silicon (PS) surface is considered in the light of recent in situ observations of the photoluminescence process coupled with detailed quantum chemical modeling of the silanone based oxyhydrides. The enhanced oxidation of PS surface bound SiHx moieties as they undergo multiphoton excitation through the SiHx stretch vibrational ladder to the quasicontinuum is suggested as a source of the visible PL produced in the 600–800 nm region. Vibrational-to-electronic energy transfer within the SiHx manifold, as previously suggested, is thought to be unlikely. However, the formation of OSiHx constituencies on the PS surface as these are associated with the silanone-based silicon oxyhydrides would appear to be significant. Evidence for these oxyhydrides may also be apparent in the laser induced PL from silicon nanoparticles. All experimental observations are explained without envoking quantum confinement. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.Mq Oxidation
81.05.Cy Elemental semiconductors
81.05.Rm Porous materials; granular materials
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
78.55.Ap Elemental semiconductors
78.55.Mb Porous materials
82.50.-m Photochemistry
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Structural defects and microstrain in GaN induced by Mg ion implantation

B. J. Pong, C. J. Pan, Y. C. Teng, G. C. Chi, W.-H. Li, K. C. Lee, and Chih-Hao Lee

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 5992 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367465 (5 pages) | Cited 21 times

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The optical and structural characteristics of GaN films implanted with Mg and Be ions, grown by low-pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition were studied. The low temperature (20 K) photoluminescence (PL) spectra of annealed Mg implanted GaN show a 356 nm near band edge emission, a 378 nm donor-acceptor (D-A) transition with phonon replicas, and a 528 nm green band deep level emission. The origin of the 528 nm green band emission and the 378 nm D-A emission might be attributed, respectively, to the Mg implantation induced clustering defect and the vacancy defect in GaN film. Observations of in-plane and out-of-plane x-ray diffraction spectra for as-grown undoped, Mg implanted and rapid thermal annealed GaN suggest that ion implantation induced anisotropic strain may be responsible for the observed PL emission characteristics. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)

Optical properties of PbS

Hideyuki Kanazawa and Sadao Adachi

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 5997 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367466 (5 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Spectroscopic ellipsometry has been used to measure the complex dielectric function ϵ(E) = ϵ1(E)+iϵ2(E) of PbS single crystals. The measurements are made on cleaved PbS surfaces in the 1.5–5.3 eV photon-energy range at room temperature. It is found that the optical properties of PbS are very sensitive to air exposure. The observed ϵ(E) spectra reveal distinct structures at energies of the E1, E2, and E3 critical points (CPs). These data and the literature values are used for the modeling of the optical constants of PbS over the 0.3–5.3 eV photon-energy range, including the band-gap (E0 ∼ 0.4 eV) region. It is shown that the three-dimensional M0 CP (E0) and damped harmonic-oscillator model (E1, E2, and E3) provide satisfactory fits to the experimental optical-constant data. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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71.45.Gm Exchange, correlation, dielectric and magnetic response functions, plasmons
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds

Bright red electroluminescence from a dye/copolymer blend

B. Hu, N. Zhang, and F. E. Karasz

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6002 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367502 (5 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The low molecular weight dye [2-methyl-6-[2-(2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1H,5H-benzo[ij]quinolizin-q-yl)ethenyl]-4H-pyran-4-ylidene]-propane dinitrile (MPD) dispersed in an alternating block copolymer containing thiophene vinylene chromophore units and inert oligomethylene spacer units provided bright red luminescent emission centered at 645 nm. The strength of the emission was based, in part, on efficient energy transfer between the copolymer matrix and the dye. The characteristics of an electroluminescent diode based on this blend, and provided also with a hole transport layer and additional carrier transport components, were investigated. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics

Far-infrared dielectric constant of porous silicon layers measured by terahertz time-domain spectroscopy

S. Labbé-Lavigne, S. Barret, F. Garet, L. Duvillaret, and J.-L. Coutaz

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6007 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367467 (4 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We measure the refractive index and the absorption of porous silicon layers in the millimetric and submillimetric wavelength range using the terahertz time-domain spectroscopy technique. For the studied range of porosity (55%–76%), the refractive index of porous silicon is rather well described by mixture theories, in which the refractive index of bulk silicon enters as a main parameter. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
78.70.Gq Microwave and radio-frequency interactions
77.22.Ch Permittivity (dielectric function)
71.45.Gm Exchange, correlation, dielectric and magnetic response functions, plasmons

Raman and photoluminescence studies on intrinsic and Cr-doped ZnSe single crystals

Brajesh K. Rai, R. S. Katiyar, K.-T. Chen, and A. Burger

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6011 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367468 (7 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Intrinsic and Cr-doped single crystals of ZnSe, grown by the seeded physical vapor transport technique, are studied using Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopic techniques. The coupling between the longitudinal–optical (LO) phonon and the hole plasmons, in Cr-doped ZnSe, results in a downward shift of the LO peak with increasing dopant concentration. The ratio of integrated intensities of LO and transverse–optical (TO) modes in ZnSe:Cr shows a systematic increase, with increasing temperature and decreasing excitation wavelength. This occurs due to the interaction of the LO phonon field with the surface electric field in the depletion layer as an enhancement of LO mode intensity. The localized Raman modes of CrZn–Se are seen in Cr-doped samples, which corroborate the photoluminescence findings of the presence of Cr2+ and Cr1+ deep levels. The LO and TO modes of intrinsic ZnSe show upward renormalization in their peak positions with decreasing excitation wavelength. The interaction of discrete phonons with the electronic continuum of the conduction band in ZnSe is attributed to the renormalization of Raman peaks. The large electron capture cross section of deep-level Cr2+ and Cr1+ impurities prevents the observation of band-to-band photoluminescence transitions at ∼2.67 eV in ZnSe:Cr; the charge transfer process Cr2+↔Cr1+ results in two emission bands at 2.25 and 1.40 eV. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
71.55.Gs II-VI semiconductors
63.20.kk Phonon interactions with other quasiparticles
71.45.Gm Exchange, correlation, dielectric and magnetic response functions, plasmons
63.20.Pw Localized modes

Optical properties of silicon nanoclusters fabricated by ion implantation

Tsutomu Shimizu-Iwayama, Norihiro Kurumado, David E. Hole, and Peter D. Townsend

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6018 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367469 (5 pages) | Cited 94 times

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A method for the fabrication of luminescent Si nanoclusters in an amorphous SiO2 matrix by ion implantation is reported. We have measured the dose (concentration of excess Si atoms) and annealing time dependence of the photoluminescence of Si nanoclusters in SiO2 layers at room temperature. The samples were fabricated by ion implantation and subsequent annealing. After annealing, a photoluminescence band below 1.7 eV has been observed. The peak energy of the photoluminescence is found to be almost independent of annealing time, while the intensity of the luminescence increases as the annealing time increases. Moreover, we found that the peak energy of the luminescence is strongly affected by the dose of implanted Si ions, especially in the high-dose range. We also show direct evidence of widening of the band-gap energy of Si particles of a few nanometers in size by employing photoacoustic spectroscopy. These results indicate that the photons are absorbed by Si nanoclusters, for which the band-gap energy is modified by the quantum confinement effects, and the emission is not simply due to direct electron–hole recombination inside Si nanoclusters, but is related to defects probably at the interface between the Si nanoclusters and SiO2, for which the energy state is affected by cluster–cluster interactions. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
78.55.Ap Elemental semiconductors
61.72.up Other materials

Preconditioning of c-plane sapphire for GaN molecular beam epitaxy by electron cyclotron resonance plasma nitridation

Christian Heinlein, Jostein K. Grepstad, Sven Einfeldt, Detlef Hommel, Torunn Berge, and Alf P. Grande

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6023 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367470 (5 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Nitridation of c-plane sapphire is commonly employed in molecular beam epitaxy of GaN, in order to improve the crystalline quality of the deposited layers. In this study, we use x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Auger sputter profiling, reflection high energy electron diffraction, low energy electron diffraction, and atomic force microscopy to examine chemical and structural properties of sapphire (0001) substrate upon exposure to nitrogen activated by an electron cyclotron resonance plasma source. Incorporation of nitrogen into the sapphire surface was verified with x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and a monolayer of surface nitride is formed after approximately 60 min of nitridation at a substrate temperature of 620 °C. The thickness of the surface nitride layer is on the order of 4.5–6 Å for nitridation times ranging from 60 to 180 min, as estimated from the recorded nitrogen Auger sputter profiles. Reflection high energy electron diffraction gave clear evidence for formation of surface aluminum nitride, after prolonged (60 min) nitridation. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.65.Lp Surface hardening: nitridation, carburization, carbonitridation
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
52.77.Bn Etching and cleaning
52.77.Dq Plasma-based ion implantation and deposition
79.60.Jv Interfaces; heterostructures; nanostructures
79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals

Localization and thermal escape of excitons in ultrathin ZnSe/ZnS single quantum wells linked to interfacial ZnSe quantum slabs

P. Tomasini, K. Arai, F. Lu, Z. Q. Zhu, T. Sekiguchi, T. Yao, M. Y. Shen, and T. Goto

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6028 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367471 (6 pages)

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Ultrathin ZnSe/ZnS single quantum well structures have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy, on GaP substrates with high Miller indices. The optical properties of pseudomorphic ZnSe/ZnS single quantum wells have been investigated by conventional optical methods. Power-dependence and temperature-dependence measurements show that structural disorder plays an important role in ZnSe/ZnS ultrathin single quantum wells. The luminescence emission is the collective response of a group of local potentials with quantum dotlike characteristics. Consequently, the luminescence peak is the convolution of individual narrow lines. In addition, the luminescence spectra are dominated by a thermal escape of carriers when investigating the temperature dependence. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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73.20.Fz Weak or Anderson localization
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
71.35.Cc Intrinsic properties of excitons; optical absorption spectra

Mixed electron emission from doped Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 ceramics: Microstructural aspects

Weiming Zhang and Wayne Huebner

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6034 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367472 (4 pages) | Cited 15 times

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A mixed type electron emission, i.e., simultaneous ferroelectric and plasma emission, was observed with a negative driving pulse applied to doped Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 ceramics in the absence of any external potential on the electron collector. During these emission studies, significant microstructural changes on the emission surface were observed, and corresponded to the different emission modes. Erosion craters at the edge of the electrode and small particles near these craters reflected the formation of a dense plasma there. Comparatively, cavities, i.e., grain pullouts, accumulated on the bare ferroelectric surface, the frequency of which depended upon its distance from the grid. This phenomenon is proposed to be a result of fringing fields and the associated strain energy due to 90° domain switching, which could be seen as an evidence that ferroelectric emission occurred in these areas. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption

Monte Carlo simulation of x-ray emission by kilovolt electron bombardment

E. Acosta, X. Llovet, E. Coleoni, J. A. Riveros, and F. Salvat

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6038 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367473 (12 pages) | Cited 23 times

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A physical model for the simulation of x-ray emission spectra from samples irradiated with kilovolt electron beams is proposed. Inner shell ionization by electron impact is described by means of total cross sections evaluated from an optical-data model. A double differential cross section is proposed for bremsstrahlung emission, which reproduces the radiative stopping powers derived from the partial wave calculations of Kissel, Quarles and Pratt [At. Data Nucl. Data Tables 28, 381 (1983)]. These ionization and radiative cross sections have been introduced into a general-purpose Monte Carlo code, which performs simulation of coupled electron and photon transport for arbitrary materials. To improve the efficiency of the simulation, interaction forcing, a variance reduction technique, has been applied for both ionizing collisions and radiative events. The reliability of simulated x-ray spectra is analyzed by comparing simulation results with electron probe measurements. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.70.En X-ray emission spectra and fluorescence
61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)
79.60.-i Photoemission and photoelectron spectra

Numerical study of the role of a background gas and system geometry in pulsed laser deposition

T. E. Itina, A. A. Katassonov, W. Marine, and M. Autric

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6050 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367995 (5 pages) | Cited 21 times

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The transport of laser ablated particles through a Maxwell-distributed ambient gas is simulated by Monte Carlo method. Three system geometry configurations frequently appearing in laser ablation experiments are considered: plume tilting, use of an interacting gas jet, and deposition on a substrate placed perpendicular to the laser-irradiated surface. The influence of the ambient gas on the formation of film thickness profiles and kinetic energy distributions of the deposited particles is studied. The thermalization of the laser plume and the backscattering of the ablated particles due to collisions with the background gas are investigated from two-dimensional film thickness distributions. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition
52.25.Fi Transport properties
52.65.Pp Monte Carlo methods

Mixed electron emission from lead zirconate–titanate ceramics

Weiming Zhang, Wayne Huebner, Stephen E. Sampayan, and Mike L. Krogh

J. Appl. Phys. 83, 6055 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367474 (6 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Simultaneous ferroelectric and plasma emission from Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 was observed with only a negative driving pulse applied to the sample, and without an extraction potential on the electron collector. Plasma emission was a strong, inconsistent, and self-destructive process. In addition, a positive ion current was detected. Comparatively, ferroelectric emission was a relatively stable self-emission process, exhibiting no apparent delay time, and no positive ion current. The relationship between the switching and emission current of ferroelectric samples measured simultaneously cannot only be used to determine the existence of ferroelectric emission, but can also give direction to choosing suitable ferroelectric materials for emitter applications. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
77.80.Fm Switching phenomena
79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
52.80.-s Electric discharges
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