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1 Dec 1973

Volume 44, Issue 12, pp. 5209-5647

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Influence of microstructure on the dynamic high‐temperature elastic moduli of aluminum

J. C. Swearengen, J. Lipkin, and C. M. Percival

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5209 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662131 (4 pages)

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The dynamic elevated temperature elastic properties of single‐crystal and polycrystalline aluminum have been studied by employing a laser pulse technique to produce propagating stress pulses in slender rods. The behavior at temperatures between 25 and 500°C of monocrystals and slender polycrystalline specimens having a cold work texture is described. Experimental results are presented for the polycrystals as a function of thermomechanical history and compared to the results for single crystals of known orientation. The results are evaluated in terms of dislocation dynamics and anisotropy of the lattice in single crystals and polycrystals. Results show that the longitudinal wave velocity increases with the annealing of dislocations and then decreases with the disappearance of texture in polycrystals.

Voltage modulation of CdS phonon masers

J. Vrba and R. R. Haering

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5213 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662132 (6 pages)

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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We have investigated the voltage tuning of b‐axis CdS phonon masers. Voltage modulation is found to be a fairly complex phenomenon involving amplitude as well as frequency modulation of the phonon maser output. Near threshold, the frequency modulation is typically of the order of 10 kHz∕V. The response is flat up to frequencies of the order of the reciprocal of the acoustic transit time. At the higher driving voltages, the tuning is reduced. The device appears promising as a FM communications transmitter.

Convolution and parametric interaction with semiconductors

G. S. Kino and H. Gautier

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5219 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662133 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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A simple theory of the coupled semiconductor‐piezoelectric convolver is given and compared to a full theory by Otto. The approximations used are valid over the interesting experimental range. For YZ☒LiNbO3 and silicon, the range of validity of our theory corresponds to σ > 0.5 mho∕m and f < 500 MHz.

Dielectric constants of quartz. I. Theory

Denise Pradoux, Francois Blanc, René Fanguin, and Gaston Raoult

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5222 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662134 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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We have theoretically studied the propagation of guided waves in anisotropic media, and have obtained approximate results for two particular planes. The two waves that can propagate have a structure very close to classical waves, and the difference in wavelength for every mode is given.

Dielectric constants of quartz. II. Experiment

Denise Pradoux, Francois Blanc, René Fanguin, and Gaston Raoult

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5225 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662135 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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We have given formulas for the determination of the rotation and the ellipticity of a wave that has propagated through a quartz sample in a waveguide. Taking into account the multiple reflections, calculations made with the help of a computer were compared with the experimental results. Dielectric constants of quartz are found to be 4.63 parallel and 4.51 perpendicular. Both results are believed to be correct to ± 0.7%.

Intrinsic nonstoichiometry in the lead zirconate‐lead titanate system determined by Knudsen effusion

Robert L. Holman and Richard M. Fulrath

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5227 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662136 (10 pages) | Cited 81 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The range of the intrinsic nonstoichiometry in lead zirconate‐titanate at 1100 °C has been established independently by two gravimetric techniques. A modified Knudsen effusion experiment allowed for an extended interpretation of the vapor pressure data. A single experiment was used to determine the width of any Pb1−x□x (TiyZr1−y)O3−xϕx single‐phase region, the equilibrium PbO vapor pressure, activity data as a function of both temperature and composition, and the exact location of the stoichiometric composition within the single‐phase region. The ``vapor phase equilibration'' (VPE) method was used as a supplemental measurement of the width of most PZT single‐phase regions. Results obtained by the two methods for the extent of nonstoichiometry were in close agreement (xmax = 0.10 at y = 1.0; xmin = 0.016 at y = 0.40; T = 1100°C). The Knudsen effusion experiment established that for all the compositions studied, the stoichiometric composition, Pb(TiyZr1−y)O3, was coincident with the (liquid + PZT) phase boundary.

Crystallization of amorphous selenium films. I. Morphology and kinetics

K. S. Kim and D. Turnbull

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5237 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662137 (8 pages) | Cited 28 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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We report a study of the morphology and kinetics of crystallization of films of a‐Se vapor deposited on mica substrates. Morphological examination was facilitated by the complete dissolution of the amorphous component of the films by CS2, while the crystalline component was left essentially intact. Crystallization begins (in the temperature range 30–100°C) with the formation and radial growth of crystalline aggregates, with a cylindrite (two‐dimensional analog of spherulite) morphology, at the mica‐film interface. Filamentary crystals stem from the less regular regions of these cylindrites and grow upwards through the film. Upon reaching the vicinity of the free surface, some of the filamentary tips develop into cylindrites which grow in and parallel with the free‐surface plane. The interface cylindrites were about 500 Å thick and their presence apparently is responsible for the phenomenon of ``visual'' darkening often seen in a‐Se films. They are composed of small crystal domains each oriented so that the Se chain axes are parallel with the interface and perpendicular to the disk radius. In the regular morphology, favored by higher‐temperature crystallization, the domains are stacked into lamellae which extend radially from the inner regions to the outer edge of the cylindrites. These lamellae are interconnected by less regularly oriented domains and are much thicker and less regular in cross section than the crystals formed by linear polymers. The radial growth rates of the regular interface cylindrites in films of the highest purity were constant in time and quite reproducible at a given temperature. They are among the highest rates reported for a‐Se and about two orders of magnitude higher than the corresponding rates for free‐surface cylindrites. Their temperature dependence is described by u = 6 × 1015 exp[(− 32.7 kcal∕mole)∕ RT] cm∕sec.

Thermodynamic driving forces for shape changes and diffusion in nonhydrostatically stressed solids

F. V. Nolfi

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5245 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662138 (9 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The driving forces for shape changes and diffusion in nonhydrostatically stressed solids have been distinguished. The driving forces for shape changes are related to differences in the chemical potentials of the components of the solid that are defined at the surfaces, e.g., by their vapor pressures, whereas the driving forces for volume diffusion are gradients in the chemical potentials of the components within the solid. For homogeneously but nonhydrostatically stressed solids that are uniform in state throughout, the former potentials are multivalued and directly measurable (e.g., vapor‐pressure measurements), whereas the latter potentials are unique functions of the state of the solid. In general, no meaningful connection exists between the two sets of potentials. However, for situations in which, for example, the shape of a solid is changing by volume diffusion, the variations in the two sets of potentials become continuously connected.

Hall coefficient of vanadium carbide as a function of temperature and carbon concentration

L. W. Shacklette and H. Ashworth

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5254 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662139 (5 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The Hall coefficient R of single crystals of vanadium carbide (VCx) with carbon‐to‐metal ratios (x) ranging from 0.83 to 0.88 were measured between 4.2 and 300 K. The behavior of R versus T is found to depend critically on x, as well as the type of ordered structure (V8C7 or V6C5) present. The data are interpreted in terms of a two‐band model which allows for the effects of anisotropic scattering. It is proposed that a minimum in R (x) at x = 0.875 (V8C7) results from an increase in relaxation time, rather than a change in band structure for the ordered compound. The two‐band analysis is consistent with the specific heat data of Lowndes, Finegold, and Lye which show a maximum in the density near the ordered compound V6C5.

Annealing kinetics of sputtered gold‐tungsten and gold‐molybdenum films

Aristotelis Christou and Howard M. Day

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5259 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662140 (7 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The annealing kinetics of sputtered Au☒W and Au☒Mo films have been investigated as a function of temperature up to 500°C. The electrical resistivity of the gold layer after deposition was measured to be 1.25 times the bulk resistivity. The excess resistivity was attributed to structural defects such as vacancies, interstitials, twins, dislocations, and impurities which were quenched in during deposition. Particle size changes in Au☒W and Au☒Mo occur in two stages, with an activation energy for gold of 0.4 eV below 200°C and 0.7 eV above 200°C. The activation energy for the refractory layer particle growth was 1.8 eV up to 500°C. The kinetics of dislocation (Nd) annealing at 500°C was determined to follow an equation of the form Q(Nd) = − A(Nd)m, with m = 3. Annealing the films up to 500°C resulted in a decrease of internal stress in gold from 2.5 × 109 dyn∕cm2. The observed results are discussed in terms of microstructural changes and the dependence of internal stress on film thickness.

Direct observation of ferroelectric domains in modified PZT ceramics by transmission electron microscopy

B. Hardiman, R. Zeyfang, and C. Reeves

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5266 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662141 (2 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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Ferroelectric domain configurations and other crystal imperfections in tin‐modified PZT ceramics were directly observed by high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy. Specimens in both the unpoled and poled conditions were examined. 90° domain walls appear to predominate, and typical examples are given for both cases. The implications of this direct method for development of ferroelectric devices are outlined.

Application of intense relativistic electron beams to microwave generation

Y. Carmel and J. A. Nation

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5268 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662142 (7 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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Experiments have been carried out to investigate the processes leading to the generation of intense microwave signals, resulting from the nonadiabatic motion of an electron beam along a rippled magnetic field. The observations made are consistent with an instability occurring when phase‐matching conditions for a cyclotron wave on the beam and a waveguide mode are satisfied. The injection of the beam through the rippled field then serves the primary purpose of converting some of the electron motion from the parallel to the perpendicular sense. The microwave signal is maximized when this conversion is most efficient. Measurements are reported of diamagnetism, beam drift currents, and the microwave power and frequency spectrum. The results presented are interpreted as far as possible using existing theories.

Electromagnetic surface fields of an inclined buried cable of finite length

David A. Hill

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5275 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662143 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The magnetic fields on the surface produced by a buried current‐carrying cable of finite length are considered. A homogeneous half‐space model of the earth and quasistatic conditions are assumed. The cable is grounded at its end points and oriented at an arbitrary angle to the interface. While, in general, numerical integration is required, the low‐frequency limit may be treated analytically. Small cable tilts are shown to modify the direction of the surface field but not the magnitude. The results have possible application to uplink communication and radio location of trapped miners.

Wave amplification of electromagnetic surface waves supported by a plasma‐beam half‐space

K. W. Ha and S. R. Seshadri

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5280 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662144 (8 pages)

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The characteristics of electromagnetic surface waves supported by a plane interface separating a semi‐infinite region of free space from another semi‐infinite region consisting of a background plasma permeated by a neutralized beam streaming parallel to the interface are investigated for the case in which the wave is progressing either in, or opposite to, the direction of the beam. As compared to the case of a stationary plasma, the surface wave has new branches and drastically different characteristics. For the case of waves progressing opposite to the direction of the beam, there are backward‐wave regions as well as regions of instability if the beam is sufficiently strong. These regions of instability occur below the plasma frequency. In general, there are two frequency ranges of instability in which the surface wave undergoes traveling wave amplification in the direction of the stream. The wave amplification characteristics are studied and their dependence on the number density of the beam relative to the background plasma is examined.

Positive ion and neutral particle sampling in dc discharges of He☒SO2☒CO and He☒SO2☒CO2 mixtures

D. G. Kuehn and L. M. Chanin

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5288 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662145 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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Mass spectrographic studies have been conducted on the positive ions and neutral species in glow discharges containing 1.0% each of SO2 and CO in helium and also 1.1% each of SO2 and CO2 in helium. Ion species observed in these mixtures included S+, SO+, SO2+, O+, O2+ C+, CO+, and CO2+ with lesser amounts of SO3+, [CO]2+, SCO+, and [SO⋅CO]+ (or CS2+). The functional dependencies of the various ion and neutral species on pressure and discharge current for He☒SO2☒CO mixtures were consistent with the interpretation that CO reacted with the SO formed in the discharges to produce CO2 and sulfur. Measurements in He☒SO2☒CO2 mixtures also indicated the removal of SO2 through the formation of CO2 and S.

Secondary electron emission from Au, Mo, and CuBe by high‐charge‐number laser‐produced metal ions

Gilbert L. Cano

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5293 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662146 (8 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The secondary electron emission coefficient γ for gas‐covered Au, Mo, and CuBe surfaces was determined in the energy range 0.3–22.4 keV for incident ions as follows: H+, C+ 1 → 6, Al+ 1 → 10, Cu+ 1 → 9, Ta+ 1 → 3. Energetic highly charged ions produced by a Nd laser beam focused on solid targets in vacuum were allowed to impinge on a metal target. The electrons ejected were collected and the current measured. Potential ejection is dominant over kinetic ejection in this energy range. The Parilis‐Kishinevskii theory of secondary electron emission, based primarily on ionization of metal target atoms with subsequent recombination through an internal Auger process, and the present experimental results for low charge numbers (n ≤ 3e) and high mass (A ≥ 27) are only in qualitative agreement. For high charge numbers (n ≥ 4e) or low mass (A ≤ 12), there is no agreement.

Backscattered electrons from semiconductors and their effect on the resolution of TSEM

A. J. Kennedy and H. W. Kalweit

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5301 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662147 (8 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The electron backscattering properties of clean Ge(100), GaAs(100), GaAs(111)B, Ga70Al30As(111)B, GaP(111)A, and Si(100) surfaces are studied in the 0.08–3‐keV range at pressures below 50 pTorr. The kinetic energy distribution and the backscattered yield η(Er, Ep) are measured by ac and dc retarding field methods. The data on backscattering is used to estimate the influence of high‐energy backscattered electrons on the resolution of Si and GaAs transmission secondary electron multipliers. The results show that the degradation in the modulation transfer function at low spatial frequencies is approximately 8% for GaAs and less than 4% for Si.

Calculated energy distributions of electrons emitted from negative electron affinity GaAs: Cs☒O surfaces

J. S. Escher and H. Schade

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5309 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662148 (5 pages) | Cited 24 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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See Also: Erratum

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The energy distribution of electrons emitted from negative electron affinity (NEA) GaAs: Cs☒O has been calculated for various doping concentrations (1 × 1018−2 × 1019 cm−3) and work functions (0.95–1.15 eV). It has been assumed that electrons to be emitted have thermalized at the bottom of the conduction band when they reach the surface bent‐band region. The energy distribution of the electrons reaching the surface is determined by their interactions in the bent‐band region and is calculated from a solution of the Boltzmann transport equation. Multiplication of this distribution with an energy‐dependent transmission probability for the surface barrier yields the energy distribution of the emitted electrons. The width of the bent‐band region, and thus the doping concentration of the emitter material, has a significant influence on the shape and width of the distribution and on its location on the energy scale, while the work function mainly affects the magnitude of the distribution. Measured half‐widths of the energy distributions from NEA GaAs photocathodes and cold cathodes are in good agreement with the calculations.

Particle emission from low‐current break arcs at atmospheric pressure

L. G. McKnight, J. M. Sawina, and E. W. Gray

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5314 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662149 (6 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The particle production from low‐current (0.48‐A short circuit) nominally resistive break arcs between palladium‐gold contacts have been examined under ``clean'' and ``activated'' conditions. Particles produced in air and in dry nitrogen were measured using a condensation particle counter which detected particles of approximately 20‐Å diameter and larger, with a sensitivity limit of 25 particles cm−3 of air corresponding to about 5000 total particles per break arc under our experimental conditions. The operation of the relay at 15 Hz produced large numbers of particles, the production of which was nonlinear with the repetition rate, and therefore the experiments were carried out at lower cycle rates (<5 Hz). Under these conditions it was observed that after an initial period of about 500 operations, short (<10 μsec) break arcs did not produce any detectable particles. Particles were detected for arcs of greater than 30‐μsec duration with the number of particles increasing with the arc duration. Activation of relay contacts with consequent production of particles was found to take place in both filtered air and dry nitrogen showing that the activation process does not require the presence of oxygen or atmospheric particles.

Thermoelectric power of thin copper films

William F. Leonard and Ho‐Yuan Yu

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5320 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662150 (4 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The thermoelectric power and resistivity of annealed copper films have been measured. From the thermoelectric power values at the minimum in resistivity and the corresponding temperature coefficient of resistance, the calculated values of the energy dependence of the mean free path of conduction electrons and the Fermi surface area are −0.21 and −1.43, respectively.

Thermoelectric power of thin silver films

Ho‐Yuan Yu and William F. Leonard

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5324 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662151 (4 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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Measurements of thermoelectric power, resistivity, and the temperature coefficient of resistance have been made on annealed silver films. The values obtained for the energy dependence of the mean free path of conduction electrons, [(∂ lnλ∕∂ lnW)]W=WF, and the Fermi surface area, [(∂ lnA∕∂ lnW)]W=WF, were 1.29 and −2.45, respectively.

Formation and guiding of high‐velocity electrical streamers by laser‐induced ionization

David W. Koopman and K. A. Saum

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5328 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662152 (9 pages) | Cited 32 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The electrical breakdown characteristics of long spark gaps have been modified by laser‐induced ionization. The mean velocity of −500‐kV streamers is increased by an order of magnitude, to [invertedlazys]3×108 cm/sec, and discharge columns are guided over a straight path in air and other atmospheres, by a 1.06 μ optical beam focused to [invertedlazys]10 11 W/cm2. Time‐resolved studies of the experimental phenomena, together with theoretical models for the evolution of laser‐induced ionization, indicate that a continuous low‐level ionization, rather than the occasional optical breakdown beads along the beam path, is responsible for the observed effects. Analysis of the discharge data and direct measurement of the ionization generated by laser radiation focused to subbreakdown intensities both confirm that positive and negative ion pair densities in the range 1010−1011∕cm3 are responsible for directing and increasing the streamer velocities; photodetachment of electrons by the luminous streamer tip enhances the streamer propagation. Our model can also be used to interpret previously reported optical influence on electrical breakdown.

Positive ion ratio measurements in Ar, Kr, and Xe glow discharges

R. L. Fitzwilson and L. M. Chanin

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5337 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662153 (10 pages) | Cited 16 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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Results are presented of an experimental study of the relative concentration of ions in the positive column of small‐diameter noble‐gas discharges. The ratio of the molecular ion concentration to the atomic ion concentration has been measured as a function of discharge pressure and current for dc discharges in argon, krypton, and xenon. Discharge pressures and currents were varied from 0.1 to 10 Torr and 15 to 40 mA. A simple theoretical model of the positive column was developed and the pressure dependence of the ion concentration ratio was calculated. By parametrically fitting the predicted ion ratio equation to the experimental data, estimates of several reaction rate coefficients could be derived. Where possible, the ion ratio data and the derived rate coefficients have been compared to previously published data.

Measurement of electron density in a cylindrical inertial electrostatic plasma confinement device

D. J. Meeker, J. T. Verdeyen, and B. E. Cherrington

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5347 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662154 (9 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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This paper reports on an experimental investigation of the spatial variation in electron density in a cylindrical inertial‐electrostatic plasma confinement device. A microwave cavity operating at 4 and 8 mm employing both longitudinal and transverse modes and a laser heterodyne system operating at 3.39μ were used to investigate the charge structure. The microwave data showed a nonlinear increase in electron density as a function of center electrode current, implying trapping for ion injection. The laser heterodyne data showed a distinct oscillatory form of electron density as a function of radius for both electron and ion injection, with densities of 8×1011 electrons∕cm3 and variations in maxima to minima exceeding 30% of the average density.

Application of molecular‐beam techniques to the study of neutral particles in thermal plasmas

Michael E. Gersh, Gary D. Sides, S.Y. Tang, and E.E. Muschlitz

J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5356 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1662155 (5 pages) | Cited 12 times

Online Publication Date: 9 October 2003

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The application of low‐energy molecular‐beam techniques to the analysis of the neutral (metastable and ground‐state) particles emitted by a thermal plasma is described. The technique is illustrated with the use of an apparatus that contains a rotating slotted‐disk velocity analyzer and an inhomogeneous‐field deflecting magnet. The beam source is a hot‐cathode low‐voltage continuous discharge in a rare gas. With this apparatus the Landé g factor was found to be 1.51 ± 0.01 for Ne 3P2 and 1.50 ± 0.02 for Ar 3P2, in accord with theory. In addition, measurement of the velocity distributions of the two Ne metastable atoms (3P0 and 3P2) demonstrated that they could be characterized by Maxwell‐Boltzmann distribution functions with different temperatures for the two states.
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