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1 May 1972

Volume 43, Issue 5, pp. 2029-2490

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Electrically Controlled Birefringence of Thin Nematic Films

R. A. Soref and M. J. Rafuse

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2029 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661449 (9 pages) | Cited 41 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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This paper reports field‐induced realignment of a nematic liquid crystal. A thin nematic film, which has a negative dielectric anisotropy, is initially homeotropic. Application of a threshold field parallel to the optic axis distorts the nematic ordering and increases the film's birefringence in certain light‐propagation directions. Experimental results are given for threshold voltage, threshold width, optical contrast ratio, frequency response, angular field of view, electrical power consumption, and transient response. Light‐valve applications are described.

Growth of High‐Purity Single Crystals of Magnesium

S. C. Hayden, J. W. Faust, and F. G. Brickwedde

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2037 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661450 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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An apparatus is described for the growth of magnesium crystals of extreme purity and perfection. The technique involves vapor growth by sublimation under high‐vacuum conditions using magnesium itself as a getter. Crystals two orders of magnitude better than the best commercially available have been grown.

Effect of Electron Irradiation on Diffusion in Gold‐Silver Alloys

D. T. Spreng, J. E. Hilliard, and J. W. Kauffman

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2040 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661451 (8 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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The effect of electron irradiation on diffusion in gold‐silver alloys at ‐196°C was determined from the decrease in amplitude of short wavelength (11–20 Å) composition modulations produced by vapor deposition. It was found that (i) mixing occurred during irradiation. For an electron current of 2 μA cm−2 at 2 MeV the effective interdiffusivity was approximately 1 × 10−22 cm2 sec−1. (ii) The interdiffusivity was directly proportional to the electron current and increased with increasing electron energy. (iii) During warm‐up to room temperature after irradiation a single stage of mixing was observed above −70°C. The mixing during irradiation is attributed to the migration of interstitialcies to sinks and that during warm‐up to the migration of vacancies to sinks. These results support the hypothesis that annealing stages around 0°C in pure fcc metals are due to vacancy migration.

Growth Kinetics of Inert‐Gas Bubbles in Polycrystalline Solids

Alan J. Markworth

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2047 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661452 (6 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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A largely analytical study is presented of the growth kinetics of inert‐gas bubbles in polycrystalline solids. Growth is assumed to be gas diffusion controlled, and coupled expressions are thus derived for the instantaneous rates of growth of bubbles situated both within grains and on grain boundaries. Numerical solutions of these expressions are obtained for given values of various parameters using a Runge‐Kutta technique, and the results obtained in this manner are found to be consistent with corresponding experimental data describing bubble growth in neutron‐activated and annealed UC. In addition, approximate solutions to the coupled growth equations are obtained analytically for a special case and are found to be in relatively good accord with corresponding results obtained numerically.

Unified Treatment of Acoustoelectric Instabilities in CdS

H. Ozaki, N. Furuya, and N. Mikoshiba

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2053 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661453 (8 pages)

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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A unified model is proposed for the effects of the nonuniformity of samples along the length on the acoustoelectric current instabilities in photoconducting CdS. Various aspects of the current saturation and oscillation are explained by numerical calculations based on the model. A qualitative discussion is also given for the behavior of the current oscillation in semiconducting CdS. A criterion for the current oscillation and a relation between the acoustoelectric oscillation and the Gunn oscillation are obtained by using the impedance function.

Thermostimulated Conductivity and Trapping Centers in Irradiated MgO

W. C. Mallard and J. H. Crawford

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2060 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661454 (7 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Thermostimulated conductivity (TSC) measurements, reinforced on occasion by thermoelectric power measurements, have been made on gamma‐irradiated MgO crystals from several sources after a variety of thermal treatments. It has been confirmed that the TSC peak near 90°C is associated with the escape of holes from V− centers. In addition, a persistent electron current extending to below 200°K was observed in relatively high‐purity (low‐iron) crystals which appears to be associated with shallow electron traps. The free electrons responsible for it are inhibited from recombining with holes in V− centers by Coulomb repulsion. Annealing and air cooling from 1400°C eliminates this electron current and suppresses the over‐all amplitude of the thermally stimulated current. The cause of this suppression and the relative insensitivity of the TSC curve to thermal treatment below this temperature are examined on the basis of a simple kinetic model.

Habit and Morphology of Copper Precipitates in Silicon

S. M. Hu and M. R. Poponiak

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2067 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661455 (8 pages) | Cited 24 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Copper precipitates in silicon often agglomerate into elliptical disks lying in {110} planes of the host lattice, with their respective major axes pointing in the 〈110〉 directions. As many as 12 such disks usually emanate from a nucleation center of some lattice defect, displaying a partially or fully developed rosette pattern silhouette under ir microscopy. Various patterns of precipitates in substrates of 〈100〉, 〈111〉, and 〈120〉 crystallographic orientations are consistently explained by coordinate transformations of a hypothetical rosette pattern. In particular, the observations of precipitates in 〈120〉 substrates have demonstrated the nonexistence of needle forms. The ratio of the two elliptical axes varies with copper concentration and quenching conditions. With the surface behaving as a sink, rapid quenching was usually necessary to achieve fully developed precipitates. There was no preference among the six equivalent {110} planes and the six 〈110〉 directions in which elliptical disks precipitated about a point defect. There was, however, a preferred orientation tendency for the disks precipitated about a dislocation line. Some elliptical disks exhibited banded structure—probably a result of Ostwald ripening. The elliptical disks disappeared and reappeared during annealing cycles, exhibiting a memory effect.

Calculation of Plane‐Wave Propagation in Anisotropic Elastic‐Plastic Solids

J. N. Johnson

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2074 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661456 (9 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Wave‐propagation effects induced in isotropic materials by either explosive or impact loading uniformly over a planar surface are much simpler than those produced in anisotropic solids in which significant transverse particle motion may occur. Such behavior in linearly elastic anisotropic solids has been investigated previously, and in the present work the analysis has been extended to include elastic‐plastic behavior. A general mathematical description of both elastically and plastically anisotropic materials is presented, and then several specific applications are considered in detail. For the case of an elastically isotropic solid that is plastically anisotropic with a single slip plane and direction, it is found that for certain orientations two plastic waves can be propagated, one of which is quasilongitudinal and the other is quasitransverse. For more general orientations there may be two quasitransverse waves and a single quasilongitudinal disturbance. These results approximate the behavior of a single‐crystal material of hexagonal symmetry, such as beryllium, for which effects of elastic anisotropy are small and slip occurs predominantly on the basal plane. Since there is a single spatial coordinate involved in planar wave propagation, the general equations describing elastic‐plastic wave propagation can be written in one‐dimensional finite‐difference form and solved numerically for arbitrary crystal structure and orientation. A number of specific examples are considered and compared with analytical solutions.

Excitation and Detection of Volume Elastic Modes with Surface Conducting Gratings

V. M. Ristic

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2082 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661457 (4 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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This paper concerns excitation and detection of volume elastic modes with surface conducting gratings. First, the generation of volume elastic modes is analyzed along degenerate (pure) and nondegenerate mode axes. It is shown under what conditions a strong volume‐wave generation occurs. An experiment aimed at measuring coupling losses, and checking the theory, is described. The paper also includes a brief discussion of the applicability of the results to generation of volume elastic waves in a microwave region.

Mixed Dislocations in Anisotropic Cubic Crystals: Interaction with Point‐Defect Stress Fields

J. W. Goodman and George Sines

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2086 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661458 (7 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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A method is presented to calculate point‐defect‐dislocation interaction for dislocations of any orientation in anisotropic crystals. The interaction energy is obtained by consideration of the stress field from the point defect acting against the displacements defining the dislocation. A computer program for stresses around a symmetric point defect in a cubic anisotropic crystal was prepared and successfully employed to calculate the elastic interaction between a symmetric point defect and a number of real mixed dislocations on known slip planes in fcc, bcc, and NaCl‐type crystals. The calculated interactions for the mixed dislocations, considering the anisotropic nature of the crystal, deviate substantially from those based on isotropy, and the deviation is greatest for mixed dislocations near the screw orientation.

Determination of Dislocation Velocities and Densities from the Deformation Waves of Discontinuous Yielding

S. R. Bodner and J. Baruch

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2092 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661459 (10 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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The deformation waves that accompany the repeated discontinuous yielding of metals are analyzed with respect to utilizing their characteristics to determine dislocation velocities and densities as functions of stress and strain. Repeated yielding experiments were performed on an annealed 2024 aluminum alloy and an α‐brass using a ``dead‐weight'' loading apparatus. Measurements were taken of deformation wave velocities and widths and the associated plastic strain increments and strain rates. The calculated dislocation velocities and densities appear to be reasonable and consistent.

Dislocation Dissociations and Dislocation Mobility in Diamond Lattice Crystals

S. Mendelson

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2102 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661460 (12 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 17 October 2008

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Dislocation dissociations are derived for AB‐type dislocations in the diamond lattice which slip on {111}, {001}, {110}, and {113} planes with stacking faults on planes of the 〈1math0〉 and 〈11math〉 zones. Atomic shuffling, necessary for the Shockley dissociation as atom pairs rotate to form the intrinsic twin stacking fault on {111}, is not required for nonplanar dissociations when type IIϕ faults develop by rotation of one atomic bond through ϕ° while maintaining the closest atomic approach and coordination number. The nonplanar dissociations apply to all tetrahedrally coordinated layer structures, and are described for the ice I wurtzite structure, which shows similar plastic flow behavior as that in Ge and Si. Activation energies are evaluated for motion of dissociated dislocations and dissociated kinks and compared with existing data for dislocation velocities and internal friction effects. The effects of doping with donor and acceptor elements on the mobility of dissociated dislocations is found to be consistent with common‐ion and elastic modulus effects. The partialized dislocations give a consistent description of various phenomena, many of which cannot be explained by the Peierls barrier model.

Glide Band Formation in Silicon

S. Mendelson

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2113 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661461 (10 pages) | Cited 8 times

Online Publication Date: 17 October 2008

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Birfringence and etch pit studies of the initial stages of plastic flow in octagonal‐shaped silicon crystals oriented for single slip and compressed at low strain rates in the temperature range 750–800 °C show characteristics quite similar to that found for avalanche behavior and ``Luders‐band'' type flow in alkali‐halide crystals. The narrow glide bands taper to a single plane at opposite ends and the dislocation morphology, as revealed by their phase retardation birefringence characteristics, is in the form of large concentric loops on neighboring planes with staggered sources in the central region of the band. Calculations show that the stress field from dislocation arrays enhances the formation of neighboring arrays by double cross slip and multiplication, and show how different kinds of defects can form. The enhanced shear stress at the cross‐slipped segment is significantly greater if the initial source operates on the surface. The effects of partialized dislocations and various dynamic effects which affect the begining and cessation of glide band formation and broadening are shown to be consistent with avalanche behavior.

Nonresonant Energy Transfer from Er3+ to Yb3+ in LaF3

Eichi Okamoto, Hiromitsu Masui, Katsutoshi Muto, and Kenzo Awazu

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2122 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661462 (2 pages) | Cited 8 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Energy transfer in LaF3; Er, Yb is studied by observing the lifetimes of Er3+ in excited states and the excitation spectra both at room temperature and at 77 °K. It is found that the energy transfer from Er3+ (4S3∕2→4I13∕2) to Yb3+ (2F7∕2→2F5∕2) is associated with the emission of three phonons of about 350 cm−1, and that the energy transfer from Er3+ (2H9∕2→4F9∕2) to Yb3+ accompanied by the absorption of phonons takes place.

Permittivity of Strontium Titanate

R. C. Neville, B. Hoeneisen, and C. A. Mead

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2124 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661463 (8 pages) | Cited 123 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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The permittivity of single‐crystal single‐domain strontium titanate has been measured in detail in the [001], [011], and [111] directions, as a function of temperature (from 4.2 to 300 °K), electric field (from −23 000 to +23 000 V∕cm, and frequency (from 1 kHz to 50 MHz). The free energy of the crystal is determined as a function of polarization with temperature as a parameter. The Curie‐Weiss law is satisfied in the temperature range 60–300 °K, giving a Curie temperature of 30 ± 2 °K for the three crystal orientations. The Lyddane‐Sachs‐Teller (LST) relation is satisfied for temperatures between 30 and 300 °K and for electric fields between 0 and 12 000 V∕cm. A generalized LST relation is used to calculate the permittivity of strontium titanate from zero to optic frequencies. Two active optic modes are important. The lower‐frequency mode is attributed mainly to motion of the strontium ions with respect to the rest of the lattice, while the higher‐frequency active mode is attributed to motion of the titanium ions with respect to the oxygen lattice. The restoring forces that act on the Ti ions begin to ``harden'' when these ions are displaced approximately 0.002 Å from their equilibrium positions.

Effects of Point Defects on Elastic Precursor Decay in LiF

J. R. Asay, G. R. Fowles, G. E. Durall, M. H. Miles, and R. F. Tinder

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2132 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661464 (14 pages) | Cited 72 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Experimental data for shock propagation along a 〈100〉 direction in single‐crystal LiF show that elastic precursor decay is critically dependent on the origin of the sample. The most obvious differences among samples used are in their concentrations of impurities. It is suggested that divalent cation impurities are responsible for variations in precursor decay, and this is supported by results from a set of samples irradiated with γ rays to produce F centers. For the observed range of defect concentrations, quasistatic yield stresses varied monotonically with concentration from 0.02 kbar for pure crystals to 1.0 kbar for the hardest material studied. In the shock loading experiments both hard and soft crystals showed an initial rapid decay of the precursor to near‐equilibrium values of about 2 kbar for the softest crystals and about 6 kbar for the hardest. For crystals of intermediate hardness the decay was much slower. From observed effects of annealing before shocking it is inferred that dislocation mechanisms in shock differ from those believed to operate at low strain rates. Impact stress for all experiments was about 28.6 kbar and sample thicknesses ranged from 0.27 to 15.44 mm.

Localized Vibrational Mode Absorption of Ion‐Implanted Silicon in GaAs

L. H. Skolnik, W. G. Spitzer, A. Kahan, F. Euler, and R. G. Hunsperger

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2146 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661465 (5 pages) | Cited 28 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Infrared absorption bands of localized vibrational modes for ion‐implanted Si in GaAs are observed. Room‐temperature implants were at energies of 1.0 and 1.5 MeV and fluences ∼ 1017 ions cm−2. The bands previously attributed to SiGa and SiAs defects were observed and the dependence of the absorption at liquid‐nitrogen temperature was studied for samples isochronally annealed from 200 to 900 °C. The strongest band due to (SiGa☒SiAs) pairs was observed after 400 °C annealing. For most of the temperature range the different defect concentrations were found to either grow or show little change during the annealing cycle. However, between ∼ 500 and 650 °C substantial reverse annealing was observed for both SiGa and SiAs. This effect cannot be explained by direct pair formation and other possible explanations are suggested. For these high‐fluence, high‐energy implants the electrical data obtained during the anneal cycle show no apparent correlation with the Si defect concentrations as deduced from optical data. The conductivity is probably controlled by residual damage left in the implant layer.

Rayleigh Wave Dispersion on Surface‐Treated Glass

J. A. Bucaro and C. M. Davis

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2151 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661466 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 17 October 2008

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Rayleigh wave velocities have been measured as a function of frequency on thermally quenched and ion‐exchanged glass samples. A significant dispersion is found indicating that such a technique can be used for studying stress profiles in surface‐strengthened glass.

Alfvén Wave Second‐Harmonic Generation in Bismuth: Kinetic Theory

Satish K. Sharma and V. K. Tripathi

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2155 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661467 (6 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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The possible nonlinear mechanisms for harmonic generation in bismuth have been investigated by solving the Boltzmann transfer equation for free carriers. Space diffusion of carriers has been shown to be as important as the interaction of magnetic field of the wave with current density. The results are compared with the experimental results of Bate and Wisseman for damped Alfvén wave second‐harmonic generation. Except for the behavior of harmonic power with static magnetic field, a good agreement is found.

Microwave Interferometry in High‐Temperature Partially Ionized Dense Gases

A. Boschi, N. Merzagora, and A. Tamburrano

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2160 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661468 (10 pages)

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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The present study emphasizes the applicability of microwave interferometry to partially ionized dense gases, such as the gas mixtures used in MHD energy‐conversion experiments. Furthermore, a transmission system is described, which allows coherent microwave transmission through refractory chambers or channels, under extreme conditions of temperature (1000–2000 °K) and pressure (near atmospheric), overcoming the difficulties in the accessibility. The system has been inserted in an arm of a microwave bridge, operating in the ``8‐mm'' band and the apparatus has been employed for interferometric measurements of electron densities (within 1011–1013 cm−3) in experiments on the nonequilibrium ionization of Cs☒He mixtures.

Production of High‐Energy Ions in Laser‐Produced Plasmas

F. J. Allen

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2169 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661469 (7 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Several reported experiments are analyzed to show that acceleration in transient electric fields is an unlikely means of production of the highly energetic ions observed in laser‐produced plasmas. Alternative mechanisms which appear capable of accounting for the observed results are proposed and discussed.

Measurements on Particle Fluxes from dc Vacuum Arcs Subjected to Artificial Current Zeroes

H. Craig Miller

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2175 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661470 (7 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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A mass and energy analyzer capable of time‐resolved analysis of the separate constituents of the flux from vacuum arcs near and through current zero has been constructed. The following results are obtained in looking at the radial flux from 50‐ and 100‐A copper arcs subjected to rapidly forced current zeros: (i) A burst of low‐energy ions is produced at the time of arc extinction (within the resolving power of the apparatus, <5 μsec), this burst being attributed to the collapse of a potential hump near the cathode. (ii) The presence of copper ions depresses the level of background gas signal, especially for hydrogen.

Effect of Secondary Infrared Irradiation on the Photoelectron Energy Distribution Curve of Cesiated Silicon

Atsuko Ebina, Tatsuo Sakaue, and Tadashi Takahashi

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2181 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661471 (4 pages)

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Effects of secondary ir irradiation of which photon energy is slightly higher than the indirect band‐gap energy on photoemissive properties of cesiated Si crystals are given. Measurements were made for p+‐, p‐, and n‐type cesiated Si. In the case of the samples which had absorbed metallic cesium by the ampoule method, it was observed that the ir irradiation had little or no effect on the quantum yield of the photoemission for all types of samples, but did cause a shift of the photoemitted EDC (energy distribution curve) towards higher electron energy and at times narrowing of EDC for p+‐ and p‐type samples. ir irradiation had no effect on the n‐type sample. Maximum shift of the low‐energy cutoff of EDC was observed for the ir of 1.25 eV, and it was about 0.4 eV. By the analysis of the ir effect on the photoemitted EDC, the electron escape length was estimated to be about 65–75 Å for photoelectrons excited by a light of 2.6–3.4 eV.

Lanthanum Hexaboride Electron Emitter

H. Ahmed and A. N. Broers

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2185 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661472 (8 pages) | Cited 49 times

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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The emitting properties of hot‐pressed high‐density lanthanum hexaboride rod cathodes have been measured. A current density of 100 A∕cm2 is obtained at a true temperature of 1680°C. Lifetime tests have shown a useful life in excess of 200 h with an emission density of more than 50 A∕cm2. The initial buildup of emission from the cathode has been found to be a gradual process and the final emission figures are not obtained until approximately 60 min have elapsed. Subsequently however, the full emission is obtained immediately on heating the cathode to operating temperature. The surface structure on the cathode has been examined with a scanning electron microscope both during the initial buildup of emission and during the operating life of the cathode. It is found that surface evaporation reveals sharp crystalline boundaries at a stage which coincides with the full emission density from the cathode. On heating the cathode to operating temperature without drawing emission, the crystalline nature of the material is revealed by the appearance of faceted hillocks on the surface. This structure is etched away when emission is drawn. There is no evidence to support the theory that lanthanum evaporates from selected emission sites. The whole LaB6 surface evaporates during operation and a certain amount of embedded material is revealed. This material is believed to contain tungsten and it accumulates gradually on the surface as operation continues.

Electron Energy Distribution Function of Pure Helium in Cyclotron Resonance

C. K. Un and B. C. Lutz

J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2193 (1972); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1661473 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 10 November 2003

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Show Abstract
The Boltzmann equation has been solved for the energy distribution function of electrons of pure helium bounded in a circular cylindrical medium under the influence of a high‐frequency electric field and an externally applied dc magnetic field with the directions perpendicular to one another. The behavior of the electron energy distribution function at and near cyclotron resonance has been examined.
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