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1 Sep 1971

Volume 42, Issue 10, pp. 3659-4111

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Correlation Theorem for Nonstationary Complex Stochastic Processes of a Real Variable

Vasilios Kouskoulas

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3659 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659664 (8 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The object of this paper is to derive a general correlation theorem for a class of complex stochastic processes of a real argument. By means of this theorem, the correlation functions and the time‐power spectral densities, which are defined by averaging the realizations of the processes and their running spectra, respectively, are related to each other by a pair of one‐dimensional integral transformations. This theorem is reduced to corresponding theorems for other classes of stochastic processes which form subsets of the set of processes under consideration. The properties of the correlation functions and time‐power spectral densities along with questions concerning conditions for the existence and usefulness of these concepts in scientific and engineering applications occupy a good portion of this paper.

Plane Waves in Layered Media

Lester Q. Spielvogel

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3667 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659665 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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This paper describes how to couple equations describing pressure and shear waves of elastic materials with equations describing pressure waves in fluids. The media treated are homogeneous and occupy doubly infinite slabs of finite thickness. As a result, the transmission and reflection coefficients for a baffle composed of a finite number of slabs of elastic and fluid materials are obtained. These concepts are useful in the determination of transmission and reflection of sonar baffles, ocean bottom, etc. Limits can be taken, letting the thickness of a fluid layer go to zero, to see the effects of lubricated boundaries in baffles, etc.

Asymmetric Light Diffraction from Nonsinusoidal Ultrasonic Surface Waves

Thomas H. Neighbors and Walter G. Mayer

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3670 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659666 (4 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The diffraction pattern produced by reflection of monochromatic light from an ultrasonic surface wave composed of a fundamental and higher harmonic frequencies is calculated for a Gaussian and a uniform light surface illumination. The diffraction pattern is found to be asymmetric with respect to the central order. This asymmetry is calculated from available diffraction data on LiNbO3.

Tellurite Glass: A New Acousto‐Optic Material

T. Yano, A. Fukumoto, and A. Watanabe

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3674 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659667 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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A new glass, composed of TeO2, was found to be well suited to acousto‐optical devices. It exhibits a high figure of merit: Me(p2n6∕ρv3) = 23.9×10−18 sec3∕g and has very good optical qualities with regard to visible light.

Pressure Dependence of Infrared Eigenfrequencies of KI, RbI, and Their Mixed Crystals

J. R. Ferraro, S. S. Mitra, and A. Quattrochi

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3677 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659668 (5 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The pressure dependence of the long‐wavelength transverse‐optic‐phonon frequency of KI and RbI was determined by infrared transmission measurements. The mode Grüneisen parameters thus obtained compared well with those calculated from a rigid ion model using Born‐Mayer‐type potentials. The phase transition to CsCl structure at appropriate pressures was noted for both crystals, accompanied by a lowering of the math ≃ 0 TO phonon frequency. Infrared transmission measurement and its pressure dependence confirms that the mixed‐crystal system K1−xRbxI forms an intermediate class of mixed‐crystal system ``half‐way'' between the ``two‐mode''‐ and ``one‐mode''‐type mixed crystals.

Magnetic Recordings of the Heart's Electrical Activity with a Cryogenic Magnetometer

A. Rosen, G. T. Inouye, A. L. Morse, and D. L. Judge

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3682 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659669 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The greatest difficulty in measuring magnetic field generated by the heart's electrical activity is in eliminating noise from other sources. The common mode portion of the noise was rejected by using a magnetometer with a pair of differentially connected superconducting flux transformers. The high sensitivity associated with the two Josephson junction quantum interference device permitted highly resolved magnetiocardiograms of quality comparable to the normal electrocardiogram, without the use of shielded enclosures or signal averaging.

Strengthening Alumina by Quenching in Various Media

H. P. Kirchner, R. E. Walker, and D. R. Platts

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3685 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659670 (8 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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In well‐made polycrystalline alumina ceramics subjected to external forces, fracture originates at surface flaws. In this investigation, compressive surface layers were formed by quenching both glazed and unglazed alumina rods in various quenching media. Improvements in flexural strength, tensile strength, thermal shock resistance, and impact resistance were observed. The strength increases with increasing compressive surface force as indicated by rod tests. Therefore, in quenched alumina compressive surface layers prevent surface flaws from acting to cause failure.

Ultrasonic Study of Elasticity‐Porosity Relationship in Polycrystalline Alumina

A. Nagarajan

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3693 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659671 (4 pages) | Cited 29 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Ultrasonic pulse echo measurements on alumina bodies of porosities ranging from 1 to 40% show linear relationships between both the shear and longitudinal velocities and the total porosity. A quadratic relationship is deduced for the dependence of Young's and shear moduli on porosity. The values extrapolated to zero porosity agree reasonably well with results of other works. Poisson's ratio is constant within the limits of the experimental errors. The attenuation of the echoes increases substantially with increasing porosity. When the experimental results are compared with various theoretical models, it is clear that the ``dilute‐suspension'' models are incapable of fitting the observations. Among the ``elastic‐bound'' models, a cylindrical pore model seems to fit the data much better than a spherical model.

Theory of Steady‐State Evaporation of Alloys

E. Brock Dale

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3697 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659672 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The theory of steady‐state evaporation, which produces a vapor having the same composition as the alloy to be evaporated, is given. Equations are derived showing the composition of the evaporant, which is physically separated from the alloy feed, during the approach to steady state. The general case of N components is treated, and closed solutions are given for various special cases involving two, three, and N components with different vapor pressures. Illustrative numerical examples are given.

A Dense Modification of BaO and Its Crystal Structure

Lin‐gun Liu

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3702 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659673 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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BaO displays a reversible phase transformation in the pressure range between approximately 110 and 180 kbar at room temperature. The high‐pressure modification is the first high‐pressure polymorph of an alkaline‐earth oxide to be observed directly. The x‐ray diffraction pattern of the high‐pressure from at about 180 kbar can be satisfactorily indexed as tetragonal with a = 4.397 ± 0.007 Å and c = 3.196 ± 0.005 Å. Although there are intensity discrepancies, the high‐pressure polymorph of BaO appears to have the structure of phosphonium iodide PH4I (SG P4∕nmm), which is a distorted CsCl‐type structure, and contains 2 molecule per unit cell. A transformation to this structure results in a volume decrease about 11–14% at the phase transformation. This study has also been carried out up to pressures of about 290 kbar, no further phase change was observed and the axial ratio c∕a appears independent of pressure within experimental error.

X‐Ray Diffraction Investigation of β′‐NiAl Alloys

T. Hughes, E. P. Lautenschlager, J. B. Cohen, and J. O. Brittain

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3705 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659674 (12 pages) | Cited 32 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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See Also: Erratum

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An x‐ray diffraction investigation of the structure of β′‐NiAl alloys was conducted to define the state of order, identify the lattice sites occupied by compositional vacancies, and measure both static and vibrational components of atomic displacements, all as functions of temperature and composition. Long‐range order was found to be virtually complete up to 1000 °C and remained substantial up to the melting points of the alloys. Compositional vacancies present in Al‐rich β′ alloys were found to occupy Ni lattice sites only, at least to 1000 °C. Static atomic displacements were minimal at stoichiometry, increased with initial Ni or Al additions, and then decreased with further Ni or Al additions, with the maximum displacement about midway between stoichiometry and the β′ phase boundaries. Vibrational atomic displacements were also minimal at stoichiometry, but in contrast to static displacements, increased continually as either Ni or Al was added. Atomic displacements were correlated with known mechanical properties of β′‐NiAl alloys.

Theory of Dislocation Cells. III. Simple Cells Constructable from Multipoles

J. T. Moore and D. Kuhlmann‐Wilsdorf

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3717 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659675 (9 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Infinitely tall dislocation cells such as may be constructed from assemblies of similar dislocation multipoles are investigated. The long‐range stress fields of these are shown to be the same as those of the corresponding dislocation multipoles, while the short‐range stress fields are those of the corresponding infinitely extended tilt walls, except for disturbances in the immediate vicinity of corners. It is shown that the stresses of a cell of given shape, cross‐sectional area, and angle of relative misorientation, decrease in magnitude the more closely the dislocations in its walls are spaced. In the limit of continuous dislocation distributions all cell stresses vanish identically. Terminated cells are briefly considered, and a method for the simple construction of two‐grid tilt boundaries, composed of parallel edge dislocations involving two arbitrarily oriented Burgers vectors, is presented.

Theory of Dislocation Cells. IV. Hybrid Cells

J. T. Moore and D. Kuhlmann‐Wilsdorf

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3726 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659676 (5 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Extending the investigations of Papers I–III, infinitely tall ``hybrid cells'', i.e., dislocation cells derivable from mixtures of different orders of multipoles, are considered. A symbolism is developed aiding in the analysis of such cells. It is shown that at different distances the stress fields of hybrid cells are dominated, in turn, by the multipoles composing them. For example, a cell that may be regarded as an assembly of dipoles, tripoles, and hexapoles exhibits a stress field that has dipole nature at the farthest distances, has tripole nature in an intermediate range, and has hexapole nature at the closest distance just beyond the true short‐range stress field of the cell walls. The latter is the same as that of the corresponding infinitely extended boundaries, as was shown in Paper III.

Coordinate Paths for Depinning and Repinning of Dislocations

Charles L. Bauer

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3731 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659677 (6 pages)

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The energy of a dislocation segment, anchored firmly at each end and bound by two (breakable) pinning points, is determined by computer as a function of pinning‐point distribution and applied stress. Under appropriate conditions, multiple energy minima occur for various dislocation configurations characterizing the pinned, depinned, and half‐pinned states, indicating a variety of energetically feasible coordinate paths for depinning and repinning of dislocations. Implications of these results are discussed and compared with those obtained from approximate analytic solutions.

A Consideration of Poole‐Frenkel Effect on Electric Conduction in Insulators

Masayuki Ieda, Goro Sawa, and Sousuke Kato

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3737 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659678 (4 pages) | Cited 56 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The extended Poole‐Frenkel model presented here includes the variation of the barrier height with electric field in directions both opposite and forward to the electric force on an electron. The equation for the voltage‐current characteristics based on this model gives not only the usual Poole‐Frenkel equation at extremely high electric fields but also Ohm's law at low fields. Several published experimental data are in good agreement with this equation.

Pyroelectric Voltage Response to Step Signals of Infrared Radiation in Triglycine Sulphate and Strontium‐Barium Niobate

M. Simhony and A. Shaulov

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3741 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659679 (4 pages) | Cited 39 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Theoretical and experimental analysis of voltage transients obtained in triglycine sulphate and strontium‐barium niobate in response to step radiation signals yields information important for pyroelectric ir detection. The response transients are shown to be symmetrical with respect to the electronic and thermal time constants τe and τT of the samples. When τe and τT differ appreciably, the rise of the response and its decay are exponentials whose time constants are, respectively, the smaller and the larger one from among τT and τe. The peak voltage values are proportional to the load resistance RL when τe≪τT; they become independent of RL and proportional to τT when τe≫τT. The initial slope of the response in a given sample is found to be independent of RL for a given radiation flux. The pyroelectric coefficient of a material, divided by the product of its permittivity, density, and specific heat is shown to be a figure of merit for use in pyroelectric ir detection

Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on Self‐Diffusion in Single Crystals of Indium

Aadu Ott and Aslaug Nordén‐Ott

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3745 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659680 (5 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The pressure effect on the self‐diffusion rate in single crystals of indium metal has been measured parallel and perpendicular to the tetragonal axis using a radioactive tracer deposition and sectioning method. The experiments were performed at three different temperatures 118, 132, and 148 °C, and at hydrostatic pressures varying from 1.2 to 9.6 kbar. The diffusion rate was observed to decrease with increasing pressure and the activation volume for the diffusion process was determined to be 8.1 ± 0.4 cm3∕mole with no detectable dependence on temperature or crystallographic orientation. Comparison with theoretical relations suggests the vacancy mechanism for diffusion.

Gallium Diffusions into Silicon and Boron‐Doped Silicon

J. S. Makris and B. J. Masters

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3750 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659681 (5 pages) | Cited 14 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Radiochemical techniques were used to measure the 72Ga distribution profiles resulting from gallium diffusions into intrinsic silicon and into boron‐prediffused extrinsic silicon. Gallium diffusions were conducted from 900 to 1050 °C. Gallium diffusivity in intrinsic silicon is found to be well described by the expression Dint =60 exp(−3.89 eV∕kT) cm2∕sec and in heavily boron‐doped extrinsic silicon by the relation Dext ≃ 0.008(−2.49eV∕kT) cm2∕sec. The observed increase in Ga diffusivity with hole concentration is explained by means of a generalized monovacancy diffusion model, in which the diffusion of ionized substitutional impurities in silicon is assumed to be controlled primarily by the concentration vacancies of the opposite charge type.

Calculation of Obstruction Effects on Rarefied Particle Streaming through Short Tubes

Philip T. Choong and Edward A. Mason

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3755 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659682 (7 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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A numerical technique has been developed to study the behavior of the flow conductance through a cylindrical channel for various types of rarefied particles. The present method has the characteristics of being accurate and more efficient than the conventional Monte Carlo. In comparison with Clausing and DeMarcus's approaches of solving integral equations, the method is superior by being both versatile and flexible. The channel obstruction effects are characterized by a dimensionless parameter K which is computed in TUBNOF code. Some of the effects investigated are the specular reflection, adsorption, and absorption. The finite molecular mean free path effect on the rarefied particle flow is also considered. The technique can be very useful in studies involving sublimation, molecular beams, cold gas jets, and radiation streaming.

Field‐Enhanced Photoelectron Emission from Metal‐Oxide‐Semiconductor Structures

Norman A. Foss

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3762 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659683 (4 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Field‐enhanced photoelectron emission from metal‐oxide‐semiconductor (MOS) structures has been investigated. The device is a Si☒SiO2☒Al:Cs:O structure which incorporates a low work‐function surface in conjunction with an internal‐gain mechanism to give an increased infrared response. The avalanche gain increases the response by providing the diode stage with a high photoelectron yield in the infrared. This gives a photoelectron quantum efficiency of 0.1% at 1.1‐μ wavelength for structures with 1‐cm×0.3‐cm active areas.

Transition from the Primary Streamer to the Arc in Positive Point‐to‐Plane Corona

Toshio Suzuki

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3766 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659684 (12 pages) | Cited 25 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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This paper reports for the first time measurements with multiple techniques delineating the complete sequence of events from the primary streamer to the thermalization of a highly ionized channel to the arc phase in the common spark transition for relatively small point‐to‐plane gaps. The observations cover a range of point diameters from 0.1 to 2 mm, for gaps in room air from 1 to 4 cm long, covering the whole range of potentials from streamer onset to in excess of 30% above the standard sparking threshold. It is shown that starting with the primary streamer, which occasionally at its start creates photoionization up to the midgap and at the cathode, there is produced a succession of ionizing waves of potential starting in many cases on the arrival of its tip at the cathode. These waves, observed by photomultipliers as well as by current pulses over a period of some microseconds, create what has been called a ``secondary streamer'' by Hudson and Loeb. Unless overvoltage exceeds 30%, the electron density and temperature in the resulting channel are not adequate to thermalize to an arc. Above this value, thermalization occurs in several hundred nanoseconds. At lower overvoltages, there is a dark phase lasting at low values for hundreds of microseconds. During the dark phase, there is a virtually nonluminous current involving ion motion. This regenerates the anode point field and leads to a series of one or more very heavy, very fast, luminous ionizing‐potential waves. The higher the overvoltage, the fewer the number of these pulses spaced in time on ion movement scales. After the last pulse the thermalization follows through gas heating time from 40 to 60 nsec.

Phenomenological Model of Electret State in Carnauba Wax Inferred from Electrical Conduction Measurements

G. Caserta and A. Serra

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3778 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659685 (8 pages) | Cited 17 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Measurements of current‐voltage charactristics, isothermal discharge currents, and thermally stimulated current have been used to clarify the mechanism of formation of electret state in Carnauba wax. The results of such measurements are interpreted with the aid of an energy band model in which a set of localized energy levels, located in the gap of energy bands, acts as charge carrier traps. The gap is about 7.4 eV wide. In the neighborhood of electrode contact the traps have a uniform energy distribution which extends as far as 0.3 eV from the edge of the bands. In the bulk of the material the energy distribution of trapping states becomes exponential and extends all over the gap. The charges (electrons and holes) have a double origin: the injection from the electrodes and a thermally activated process in which electron‐hole pairs are produced. The homocharges arise because of trapping of the injected charges near the electrodes and the heterocharge because of trapping of electron‐hole pairs in the bulk of the material.

Creep of Dispersions of Ultrafine Amorphous Silica in Ice

H. S. Nayar, F. V. Lenel, and G. S. Ansell

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3786 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659686 (4 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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A technique was developed to produce ice containing a fine uniform dispersion of amorphous silica particles. Rates of creep in tension of dispersions with ☒‐ and 1‐volume % silica in ice were measured in the temperature range of −22 to −2°C and in the stress range of 4.64–17.8 bar and compared with those of pure ice. The silica dispersion strongly decreases creep in ice, resulting in steady‐state creep rates in a 1‐volume % dispersion 10–30 times slower than in pure ice. The activation energy for steady‐state creep in dispersion‐strengthened ice calculated from the temperature dependence of the creep rate is stress dependent with an average value of 97 kcal∕mole, 6–7 times that for self‐diffusion in pure ice. The steady‐state creep rate increases exponentially with stress. This behavior differs from that of metallic coarse‐grained dispersion‐strengthened materials, in which the creep rate is proportional to a power of the stress and the activation energy is stress independent and equal to that for the self‐diffusivity of the matrix metal. It is suggested that this unexpected behavior is due to particle‐matrix decohesion in the ice‐silica system, which interferes with the normal blockage of dislocation motion by second‐phase particles during creep.

Effect of Colloids on the Thermal Conductivity of γ‐Irradiated KCl

R. A. Guenther and H. Weinstock

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3790 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659687 (10 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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The influence of γ irradiation at 300 and 77 K on the thermal conductivity of KCl in the range 0.4–4 K has been investigated. The results have been interpreted on the basis of the scattering of phonons by localized defects of both the point and extended varieties. The analysis is consistent with a defect model proposed for irradiated KCl by Sonder et al. This model postulates the formation of interstitial chlorine atoms which aggregate to form (colloid) clusters whose size and number depend on the irradiation temperature of the crystal. Evidence of aggregates with an effective radius of 70 ± 5 Å has been found for three different single crystals (from two sources of supply) irradiated at 300 K. For a sample crystal irradiated at 77 K and measured after direct cooling to 4 K, there was a significantly larger decrease in conductivity suggesting the possibility of extended defects which disappear after a short annealing period at 300 K.

Recovery of Deformed Polymers. II. Repeated Cold Drawing of Polycarbonate, Polyethylene, and Polypropylene

D. R. Uhlmann and J. B. Park

J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3800 (1971); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659688 (6 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 17 December 2003

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Studies of repeated cold drawing with intermediate annealing have been carried out on three polymers: polycarbonate, polyethylene, and polypropylene. In the case of polycarbonate, samples recovered to their original lengths in the anneals. On testing, necking and yielding behavior were observed on all draws, with the modulus and yield stress dropping most significantly between the first and second draws, and by a smaller amount between the second and subsequent draws. The recovery kinetics are complex; activation energy spectra derived from these kinetics are centered about 22.5–24.5 kcal∕mole, and do not vary significantly with the initial strain or number of the draw. In the case of polypropylene, yielding and necking were observed on all draws after annealing at 160°C; with annealing at lower temperatures, yielding was noted on only the first draw. For both polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) incomplete recovery was observed on the intermediate anneals; the elastic modulus and drawing stress were significantly smaller on the second draw than on the first draw, and were effectively unchanged between the second and subsequent draws. This softening effect decreased with increased extent of recovery in the intermediate anneal. Activation energy spectra derived from the recovery kinetics were centered about 14.5–15.5 kcal∕mole for PP and 22–23 kcal∕mole for PE; the occurrence of recovery processes having significantly lower activation energies is also indicated.
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