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1 Jun 1970

Volume 41, Issue 7, pp. 2755-3196

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Temperature Dependence of Surface Acoustic Wave Velocity on α Quartz

M. B. Schulz, B. J. Matsinger, and M. G. Holland

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2755 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659311 (11 pages) | Cited 33 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Measurements of the temperature dependence of surface acoustic wave velocity were performed for propagation on X, Y, AC, AT, and along the x axis of several other rotated Y cuts of quartz over the temperature range −25° to +75°C. A pulsed rf technique was employed. To facilitate the measurement of angular dependence of the temperature coefficient of velocity, surface wave delay lines were constructed in which the waves were excited on the quartz by means of an interdigital electrode structure on a glass substrate which was brought into contact with the quartz. Calculations of the temperature coefficients of velocity and delay time were performed using an iterative computer program based on the work of Coquin and Tiersten. The measurements and calculations are in good agreement in most cases, the largest discrepancy being approximately five percent. It is concluded that the orientation which best combines low‐temperature dependence of delay time, high coupling constant, and a minimum of deleterious side effects is 42☒° rotated Y‐cut quartz with propagation along the x axis.

Acousto‐Optic Properties of Crystalline Germanium

R. L. Abrams and D. A. Pinnow

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2765 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659312 (4 pages) | Cited 25 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The acousto‐optic properties of crystalline germanium have been measured, including a complete and accurate characterization of the photoelastic tensor. The results of this work indicate that germanium has a substantially larger acousto‐optic figure of merit, (n6p2∕ρV3), than other known infrared materials, with the exception of crystalline tellurium. Because germanium has superior optical and mechanical properties, it should be preferred to tellurium for many infrared modulation and deflection applications. In addition, we propose that germanium be used as a standard for future infrared acousto‐optic material studies in the same way that fused silica has been used in the visible and near visible portion of the spectrum.

Molecular Beam Sources Fabricated from Multichannel Arrays. III. The Exit Density Problem

Donald R. Olander and Valerie Kruger

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2769 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659313 (8 pages) | Cited 59 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Although the theory of Giordmaine and Wang adequately predicts the centerline intensity of a molecular beam from a channel source, it is less successful in describing the angular distribution. This deficiency has been ascribed to a nonzero number density at the tube exit. The end conditions chosen by previous workers lead to angular distributions which fail to satisfy total flow and average cosine restrictions. A method of choosing the parameters of the linear density profile which satisfies these integral constraints is described. The computed angular distributions according to the theories utilizing different end conditions differ very little from each other, but represent a clear improvement over Giordmaine and Wang's angular distribution.

Solubility of Gases in Glass—A Monatomic Model

Perry L. Studt, James F. Shackelford, and Richard M. Fulrath

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2777 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659314 (4 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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A statistical mechanical model of gas solubility in glass is presented. For equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy of the free gas is equated to that of the gas in solution. Expressions for the Gibbs energies are obtained from assumptions of the atomic motion in the free gas and dissolved states. The resulting solubility equations express the solubility (in atoms per cubic centimeter of glass) as a function of gas pressure, temperature, fundamental constants, and material parameters. An initial evaluation of the model is made by comparison with literature data for helium and neon in fused silica.

Morphology of Epitaxial Growth of GaAs by a Molecular Beam Method: The Observation of Surface Structures

A. Y. Cho

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2780 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659315 (7 pages) | Cited 120 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Homoepitaxial growth of GaAs was studied in situ in an ultrahigh‐vacuum high‐energy electron diffraction (HEED) system. Two surface structures, GaAs(mathmathmath)−(19)1/2 and GaAs(mathmathmath)−2, were observed during growth. The transition from one surface structure to the other was found to be a function of the deposition rate and the substrate temperature, with the high‐temperature structure being the (mathmathmath)−(19)1/2. The film growth morphology was studied by the carbon replication technique. Growth by a step mechanism was observed on a bromine‐methanol etched surface while three‐dimensional nuclei were observed on a polished or contaminated surface.

Precipitation and Dissolution Potentials

R. P. Rastogi and R. D. Shukla

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2787 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659316 (9 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Precipitation and dissolution potentials for KCl, NaCl, BaCl2, and NH4Cl have been measured with a Lindemann electrometer both in air as well as in nitrogen. The values in the latter case are lower. The electrode on which precipitation and dissolution takes place is found to be negative. The available evidence shows that static potential is developed. In order to assess the relative contributions of (i) diffusion potential, (ii) thermodiffusion potential, and (iii) zeta potential to the overall precipitation and dissolution potential, suitable experiments have been performed. Zeta potential was estimated from measurements of streaming potentials. Phase potentials have also been measured. It appears that the major contribution to the observed precipitation and dissolution potential arises due to unequal mobilities of the two ions being incorporated into or detached from the crystal lattice. The temperature, concentration, and time dependence of the various potentials have also been investigated.

Propagation of Piezoelectric Surface Waves on Cubic and Hexagonal Crystals

James J. Campbell and William R. Jones

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2796 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659317 (6 pages) | Cited 20 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The propagation of surface waves on free and metallized surfaces of cubic and hexagonal crystals is investigated numerically. Surface wave velocity curves and relative differential velocity curves are presented for propagation on typical surfaces of four selected crystals (gallium arsenide, bismuth germanium oxide, zinc oxide, and cadmium sulfide). Special attention is paid to degenerate modes wherein decoupling among the various components of mechanical displacement and the electric field occurs.

Evidence for Partly Specular Reflection of Electrons in Thin Metal Films Condensed on Amorphous Substrates

I. Estermann and T. Schlesinger

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2802 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659318 (4 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Measurements of the electrical resistivity of thin silver films prepared by evaporation on amorphous substrates in ultrahigh vacuum indicate partial specular reflection of the conduction electrons at the films' surfaces. Some correlation between the electrical resistivity and the structure of the deposited films was observed, and the influence of residual gases during the evaporation process on structure and properties of the films was investigated.

Characteristics of Stress and Dilatation Fields of Straight Dislocations in Anisotropic Crystals

M. H. Yoo and B. T. M. Loh

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2805 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659319 (10 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The stress fields σij and the dilatation field Δ have been obtained in contour plots for a straight dislocation situated perpendicular to a reflection plane in an anisotropic crystal. A common characteristic feature of the results obtained for various metals at room temperature is that no twofold symmetry exists in any of σij or in Δ with respect to any axis normal to the dislocation line. For certain values of the modified elastic compliances S16 and S26, anomalous patterns have been found in the elastic fields that each of the σ11, σ33, and Δ fields is divided into six sectors as compared to the usual cases of two sectors, and either of σ12 and σ22 fields is divided into two sectors in contrast to the normal pattern of six sectors. Some direct effects of the asymmetries and certain anomalies of these elastic fields on deformation processes are discussed.

Burgers Vector of Dislocations Generated for Dislocation Velocity Measurements in Semiconductors

J. R. Patel and P. E. Freeland

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2814 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659320 (4 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Dislocation motion in crystals is usually measured on loops generated from a deliberately introduced nucleating center such as a scratch. In germanium crystals it has been noticed that motion of an individual loop is usually asymmetric as observed by etch‐pit techniques. The asymmetry has been assumed to arise from motion of dislocations having different character. The validity of this assumption was tested directly by x‐ray topographic contrast experiments on crystals of germanium and silicon. From appropriate reflections that give either a strong or vanishing contrast it is possible to determine the Burgers vector of the dislocation loop. For both bending and compression tests, dislocation loops generated from a scratch and subsequently moved have a Burgers vector in the maximum resolved shear stress direction. Thus, for the specimen orientation 〈123〉 commonly used in velocity experiments both ends of the dislocation loops intersecting the surface of observation have the same character. In some cases the asymmetry may be due to the shape of the loop. The x‐ray evidence refutes the conclusions reached by previous workers that asymmetrical motion is due to dislocations of different character.

Diffusion of Selenium‐75 in Lead Chalcogenides

Y. Ban and J. Bruce Wagner

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2818 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659321 (6 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The diffusion of Se‐75 has been studied in crystals of PbS, PbSe, and PbTe annealed under argon at 700°C. The relative diffusivities were D(PbS) ≈ D(PbSe)⪝D(PbTe). Adding bismuth to PbSe yields a higher diffusivity than in undoped crystals of PbSe while additions of silver do not change the diffusivity. At 700°C the diffusivity of selenium in PbSe was studied as a function of selenium partial pressure. For 10−4 ≤ pSe2 ≤ 80 Torr, D ∝ pSe21∕4 while for pSe2 > 80 Torr, D ∝ pSe21∕2. For pSe2 < 10−4 Torr, the diffusivity was not a function of selenium pressure.

Morphology of Etch Pits on Germanium Studied by Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy

Michael F. Ehman, G. R. Jindal, J. W. Faust, and William B. White

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2824 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659322 (4 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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A comparison is made between optical and scanning electron microscopy techniques on germanium surfaces that have been etched in several common chemical etchants. The morphology of the etch pits due to dislocations and different types of surface preparation are discussed. The high resolution and depth of field of the scanning electron microscope allowed resolution of the fine structure of the etch figures. Due to the manner in which the image is formed on the scanning electron microscope, the limit of resolution is much higher and light interference encountered using standard metallurgical microscopes is eliminated.

Dielectric Relaxation in Strontium Titanates Containing Rare‐Earth Ions

D. W. Johnson, L. E. Cross, and F. A. Hummel

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2828 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659323 (6 pages) | Cited 51 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Ceramic samples of SrTiO3, containing a wide range of solid substitution of trivalent rare‐earth ions, have been fabricated and examined in detail. Well‐developed dielectric relaxation was observed in samples containing lanthanum, praesodymium, neodymium, samarium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium, but not in samples containing cerium or europium. The relaxation occurs at normal low radio frequencies (102−105 Hz) in the temperature range −150° to +40°C, and there is a systematic variation of the relaxation parameters with both concentration and ionic size of the substituted ion. X‐ray and density measurements confirm that as with lanthanum [T. Y. Tien and L. E. Cross, Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 6, 459 (1967)]. and bismuth [G. I. Skanavi, I. A. M. Ksendzov, V. A. Trigubenko, and V. G. Prokhvatilov, Sov. Phys. JETP 6, 250 (1959)] substitutions, two rare‐earth ions and an associated vacancy substitute for three strontium ions in the ``A'' sites of the perovskite lattice. Possible explanations for the dielectric behavior are considered and it is shown that the data are consistent with an ionic model proposed earlier by Skanavi. [G. I. Skanavi and E. N. Matveeva, Sov. Phys. JETP 3, 905 (1957)].

Dielectric Properties of Bismuth Titanate

A. Fouskova and L. E. Cross

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2834 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659324 (5 pages) | Cited 115 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Three‐terminal dielectric measurements of the weak‐field permittivity have been carried out on single crystals of bismuth titanate (Bi4Ti3O12), which contained only ``narrow‐angle'' twin walls. The pseudo‐orthorhombic ϵa, ϵb, ϵc in these twinned monoclinic crystals show strong dispersion in the frequency range 100 Hz‐1 mHz, and only above 1 mHz are the data representative of the intrinsic properties. The dispersion is thought to arise from space charge developed through the high conduction current at elevated temperatures and not from domain wall motion or damped piezoelectric resonance.

Electronic Conduction and Space Charge in Amorphous Insulating Films

D. L. Pulfrey, A. H. M. Shousha, and L. Young

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2838 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659325 (6 pages) | Cited 28 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Steady‐state high‐field electron conduction characteristics have been computed for a model in which the film contained electron traps with distributed binding energy and a compensating positive charge. Electron injection was taken to occur by the Schottky effect, trapping was considered as field independent, and detrapping as governed by the Poole‐Frenkel equation. The results illustrate various types of behavior according to the values of some of the model parameters.

Analysis of Double‐Stream Diffusion with Variable Trapping and Releasing Rates and Variable Diffusion Coefficient

S. A. Boctor and L. A. K. Watt

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2844 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659326 (10 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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An analytical method has been developed for solving the partial differential equations that govern double‐stream diffusion under very general conditions. The diffusion coefficient of the slow stream is set equal to zero. The trapping and releasing rates and the diffusion coefficient of the fast stream are assumed to be functions of distance and time rather than constants. General solutions of the equations which satisfy the boundary and initial conditions for the two important cases of a thin planar source and a constant surface concentration are obtained in terms of the diffusivity of the fast stream D1(x). The expressions obtained for the trapping and releasing rates are found to be physically realizable. Expressions for the concentration of the diffusing substance N(x, t) are obtained by considering suitable forms of D1(x). By varying the parameters in the expressions for the function N(x, t), concentration profiles are obtained which give a reasonable fit to the experimental data. A method is also developed to define the nominal Fick's diffusivity from the expressions of the apparent diffusivity. The values computed are of the same order‐of‐magnitude, but not in complete agreement, with those calculated using other methods.

Thermal Diffusion of Argon Isotopes

Taneki Tokuda, Yasumasa Ando, and Katsunori Fukui

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2854 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659327 (6 pages)

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The optimum conditions in operating a thermal diffusion column have been searched using argon gas. The results obtained were compared with the theoretical values. Two molecular models used for the comparison with the experimental results are the inverse power model and the Lennard‐Jones (12–6) potential model. The former showed a little better agreement with our results than the latter. When P4 is plotted as abscissa and P2∕ln q as ordinate, the relation P2∕lnq = (1∕a) (P4+b) gives a straight line using the assumption given by Furry et al. Substituting the experimental results in this equation, the time‐course variation of the values ``1∕a'' and ``b∕a'' from the slope and intercept of these linear plots was obtained. The variation of a and b with time is useful as a clue to see if the system is in equilibrium or not. Minimum values were observed near the optimum pressure in each operating time. Theoretical calculation of the relaxation tr which characterizes the approach to equilibrium was 1.04 h. Employment of direct current to heat the wire was a little better than the alternating current.

Concentration‐Dependent Diffusion of Boron and Phosphorus in Silicon

N. D. Thái

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2859 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659328 (8 pages) | Cited 16 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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A model of enhanced diffusion of boron and phosphorus in silicon is proposed, which includes the effects of plastic deformation and the degeneracy of highly doped silicon. Numerical solutions of the diffusion equation with concentration‐dependent diffusion constant are presented, and the average conductivities of typical `anomalously diffused' silicon layers are given as a function of surface concentrations. Also discussed are the effects of background doping levels and surface concentrations on the effective diffusion constant and its measured activation energy.

Concept of Transverse‐Mode Pattern in Gyromagnetic Waveguides

J. W. Tully and T. F. Tao

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2867 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659329 (9 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The mode concept of a waveguide containing isotropic medium must be generalized when it is applied to waveguide containing gyromagnetic medium. For ferrite‐ or YIG‐rod waveguides, three families of surface waves are found to exist. They are named as dynamic, surface, and volume modes. Dynamic modes are forward waves. Both surface and volume modes become backward waves when their phase velocities are much smaller than the velocity of light, i.e., large β values. The transverse‐field vectors are generally elliptically polarized. Therefore, a stationary observer is not able to see the azimuthal and radial variations of a mode. Only by an observer rotating at radian frequency ω∕n can a constant transverse‐mode pattern be recognized. Using both amplitude and serrodyne‐phase measurements, the differences between the mode concepts of an isotropic rod and a gyromagnetic YIG‐rod waveguide are demonstrated. The same concepts are shown to be applicable to both the gaseous‐ and semiconductor‐plasma waveguides.

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration of Hg1−xCdxTe as a Function of x and T Using k⋅p Calculations

J. L. Schmit

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2876 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659330 (4 pages) | Cited 80 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The intrinsic carrier concentration, reduced Fermi energy, electron effective mass, and the Fermi energy with and without doping are calculated for Hg1−xCdxTe with x>0.16 and 50<T<350°K. The calculations take into account the nonparabolicity of the bands by using the k⋅p method (Kane model) to determine n and by using the most recent linear temperature dependence of the bandgap. By fitting the ni curves calculated for nonparabolic bands to the expression for parabolic bands, the following approximation for the intrinsic carrier concentration was obtained:
math
.

Exact Fields of a Pulsed Dipole in a Homogeneous Cold Plasma

James R. Wait

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2880 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659331 (5 pages)

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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The well‐known time‐harmonic field expressions for a dipole in a cold plasma are generalized to the transient or nonsteady situation. Specifically, we consider a Hertzian dipole excited by both a constant and sinusoidal current turned on at t=0. It is found that the early part of the waveform behaves in a manner fundamentally different from the steady‐state response. (In spite of the simplicity of the model, it appears that the results are novel.)

Experimental Investigation of the Selective Deposition of Photoemitters by Nucleation

R. J. Doyle

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2884 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659332 (5 pages)

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Deposition of monoalkali and bialkali photoemitters has been controlled to preselected sites within a variety of vacuum device configurations by nucleating them on a thin (80%–98% optical transmission) predeposited metal layer having a heat of sublimation greater than that of the photoemitter evaporants. The nucleations were performed at elevated temperatures (typically 275°C for antimony) where the reevaporation rate of the evaporants was less than the arrival rate at the nucleation sites, and greater than the arrival rate at all other sites. Experiments are described where photoemitters were deposited by nucleation on preselected areas of surfaces in line of sight of the source materials, out of line of sight of the source materials, and in narrow confined spaces. Simultaneous selective deposition of more than 6000 separate 0.001‐in.‐diam photoemitters on a tungsten‐pin matrix is also described.

Operation of III‐V Semiconductor Photocathodes in the Semitransparent Mode

G. A. Antypas, L. W. James, and J. J. Uebbing

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2888 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659333 (7 pages) | Cited 30 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Calculations show that very nearly bulk quality material is required for high‐efficiency semitransparent III‐V photocathodes. For narrow‐band response, this can be obtained by epitaxially growing a thin layer of a semiconductor whose bandgap is slightly less than that of the substrate. Cathodes made by growing GaAsSb on GaAs have given quantum efficiencies comparable with front surface values, peaking out at 0.54% at 1.35 eV near the onset of absorption in the GaAs substrate. Preliminary results demonstrating semitransparent yield at 1.06 μ of 0.013% are also shown.

Effects of Changes in Ionization and Attachment Coefficients on the Dielectric Recovery of High‐Current Air Gaps

J. F. Perkins and A. B. Parker

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2895 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659334 (8 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Earlier experiments have indicated that the rate of dielectric recovery of high‐pressure, high‐current spark channels is closely related to the fall of gas temperature. Recent experimental measurements of dielectric recovery in air at 1 atm following a critically‐damped 190‐kA spark discharge of 100‐μsec duration have been made. By using measurements of gas temperature and Paschen's law, recovery characteristics have been derived on the assumption that the sole mechanism operative in the post spark channel is the reduction in gas density. It is shown in this paper that temporal variations in the values of the Townsend primary (α), secondary (γ) ionization coefficients, and of the attachment coefficient (a) can account for the detailed discrepancies between measured and derived recovery curves. During the early recovery period, an increase in γ due to the removal of adsorbed gas layers by the high‐current discharge is thought to account for the reduction in recovery voltage below that derived from gas temperature measurements. It is concluded that, at later times, γ has decreased to a point near its predischarge value; an overall increase in electron attachment due to the formation of impurity products by the high‐current discharge causes an increase in recovery voltage beyond that predicted from gas density considerations.

Microwave Breakdown in Air Plus H2O

H. W. Bandel and A. D. MacDonald

J. Appl. Phys. 41, 2903 (1970); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1659335 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 19 November 2003

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Breakdown electric field strengths have been measured in an S‐band microwave cavity for dry air, water vapor, and air plus water vapor. Breakdown field strengths for mixtures of air plus 17.2 Torr of water vapor are up to about 25% greater than for dry air at the same total pressure.
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