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1 Nov 1959

Volume 30, Issue 11, pp. 1627-1847

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Diffusion of Oxygen in Silicon

R. A. Logan and A. J. Peters

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1627 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735025 (4 pages) | Cited 30 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Oxygen has been diffused into silicon at temperatures above 1250°C. The diffused layers have been detected by subjecting the samples to a second heat treatment at 450°C. The donors, which then form from the oxygen, cause the layer to convert to n type. The relationship between donor and oxygen concentrations was established by studying donor formation in crystals of known oxygen concentration. From these results and the electrical properties of the layers, the diffusivity and solubility of oxygen in silicon has been measured. For silicon, in contact with SiO2 (glass), the heat of solution is (2.3±0.3) ev and the diffusivity is given by
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Infrared Studies of Birefringence in Silicon

S. R. Lederhandler

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1631 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735026 (8 pages) | Cited 27 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Permanent and elastic strains in silicon crystals grown by the Czochralski technique have been studied by observing the crystal birefringence. These studies reveal that the presence of birefringence is related to (a) plastic deformation caused by severe thermal gradients which produce forces exceeding the crystal yield force and (b) work damage or externally applied forces. The first source of birefringence has been termed permanent strain since this appears in the crystal as grown and the birefringence pattern cannot be altered by changes in sample geometry. This characteristic is typical of a ``frozen‐in'' strain. A strain‐free sample may also be made birefringent, however, by a work damage such as surface abrasion or sand blasting. Such a birefringent pattern can be altered if the sample geometry is changed. This characteristic, of course, is typical of elastic strain.
Studies made of samples both parallel and perpendicular to the direction of crystal growth revealed birefringence patterns similar to those of naturally anisotropic crystals such as calcite. The patterns indicate the formation of a pseudo‐optic axis in silicon coincident with the growth direction and is caused by the uneven temperature distribution which results in perdominantly uniaxial stress.
Regions of tension and compression have been discovered and their respective magnitudes determined. The calculation of the ``frozen‐in'' tension and compression stresses are based upon experimental determination of the stress‐optic coefficient of silicon. Satisfactory agreement was obtained between frozen‐in stress calculations and measurements of yield stress at elevated temperatures.

Electron Emission from Plastically Strained Aluminum

W. D. Von Voss and F. R. Brotzen

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1639 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735027 (7 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Aluminum was strained in tension under a Geiger‐Müller counter. Both the electron emission associated with plastic deformation and the subsequent delayed emission were observed. An attempt was made to correlate quantitatively the emission rates with the mechanical variables, i.e., strain and rate of deformation. The model used for this correlation links point imperfections formed during deformation with the emission from the oxide surface film.

Asymmetric Hysteresis Loops and the Pyroelectric Effect in Triglycine Sulfate

Albert Savage and Robert C. Miller

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1646 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735028 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Dynamic pyroelectric techniques have been used to study single crystal triglycine sulfate hysteresis loops at room temperature. An apparent polarization bias is observed and is similar to that reported earlier for BaTiO3. The apparent polarization bias can be shifted with the application of a dc electric field. When precautions are taken to eliminate electrode‐edge effects, the pyroelectric hysteresis loops are always symmetric. The apparent polarization bias is ascribed to electrode‐edge effects as in the case of BaTiO3.

Measurement of the Linear Magnetostriction of Hard‐Worked Nickel

H. E. Stauss

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1648 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735029 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The influence of plastic deformation upon the linear magnetostriction of hard‐worked nickel has been determined by use of direct measurements of strain in three normal directions and then by measurement of magnetostriction in the same three directions using the method of rotating the specimen 90° for each measurement. This combination of measurements appears to have advantages for the interpretation of magnetostriction in nonisotropic bodies.
The value of magnetostriction at saturation for grade A nickel plastically deformed with an 84% reduction of cross‐sectional area was found to be −33.5±1×10−6. This compares with −35±1×10−6 for annealed nickel of the same quality. The hard‐worked nickel was free of volume magnetostriction of determinable magnitude. It showed inappreciable preferred domain orientation. It did appear to have a small amount of preferred crystalline orientation.

Dielectric Breakdown of Porous Ceramics

Robert Gerson and Thomas C. Marshall

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1650 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735030 (4 pages) | Cited 26 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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A statistical approach is used to determine the effect of porosity in ceramic materials on their dielectric breakdown strength. The calculated drop in dielectric strength is in good agreement with the experimental data for lead zirconate titanate ceramics. The theory shows that the measured dielectric strength in porous materials is a function of the porosity, the void size, and of the dimensions of the test sample.

Development and Comparison of Two X‐Ray Methods for Determining the Crystallinity of Cotton Cellulose

James H. Wakelin, Hester S. Virgin, and Eugene Crystal

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1654 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735031 (9 pages) | Cited 76 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Two x‐ray methods have been developed for determining the crystallinity of cellulose using a Geiger counter spectrometer. The two methods were applied to six native cotton varieties, to a cross‐bred variety, and to two cottons chemically modified with ethylamine. The x‐ray scattering curves for each of the nine samples were compared with those from a highly crystalline sample, a cotton hydrolyzed in HCl, and an amorphous cotton sample to provide a relative measure of crystallinity, or crystalline index.
With fully corrected data the average crystalline index of the six cotton varieties was found to be 68.3 and 78.7% by the correlation and by integral methods, respectively. The crystalline indices of the remaining samples determined by the correlation and by the integral methods are, respectively, cross‐bred cotton (S×P), 54.3 and 77.2%; cotton treated with anhydrous ethylamine, 29.7 and 50.9%; and cotton treated with 75% aqueous ethylamine, 28.3 and 50.3%.

On the Dependence of the Switching Time of Barium Titanate Crystals on Their Thickness

M. E. Drougard and R. Landauer

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1663 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735032 (6 pages) | Cited 96 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The dependence of switching rate on the crystal thickness has been measured by Merz and explained by him in terms of a surface layer which has a low dielectric constant, and is about 10−4 cm thick. While not explicitly stated in Merz' original arguments, the layer must have a reversible polarization. If a layer without a reversible polarization is assumed, instead, and the discontinuity of the normal component of polarization at the interface between the layer and the bulk is taken into account, then a much thinner layer (∼1 atomic thickness) will explain the thickness dependence. This layer can be taken to be very lossy, so that it has a relaxation time (for the disappearance of electric fields) short compared to the switching time, and yet the layer will still be completely effective in slowing down domain wall motion.

Electromotive Force in a Highly Ionized Plasma Moving Across a Magnetic Field

M. Sakuntala, B. E. Clotfelter, W. B. Edwards, and R. G. Fowler

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1669 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735033 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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When a cloud of highly ionized gas flows across a magnetic field, an emf is produced in the gas which is proportional to the speed of flow. Oscillographic probe measurements have been carried out giving the flow speed as a function of position. By drawing currents from the probes the plasma resistance can be found at various distances from the plasma generator. The resistance is shown to be due to the motion of positive ions.

Interaction of Oxygen with Incandescent Filaments

J. R. Young

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1671 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735034 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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With the aid of a mass spectrometer a study has been made of the gaseous contaminants present when oxygen is exposed to different incandescent filaments. In agreement with others CO and CO2 were the most abundant contaminants found. The amounts of CO and CO2 found, at a given filament temperature and oxygen pressure, were greater for Mo 0.031% C, W 0.012% C, and Re 0.010% C than for Ta 0.001% C. Also at the same oxygen pressure and filament temperature the quantity of CO found was much greater for a carbonized W filament than for any of the other filaments investigated. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that CO and CO2 are produced by the interaction of oxygen with the carbon present in the hot filaments. No evidence was found to indicate that the glass walls contribute to the formation of CO and CO2.

Diffraction by an Infinite Slit

Harold Levine

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1673 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735035 (10 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The diffraction of plane waves by an infinite slit is investigated, with attention drawn to the case of grazing incidence and for wavelengths short compared to the slit width. The wave pattern is time harmonic and two dimensional, with identical behavior in all planes normal to the slit axis. At the coplanar screens bordering the slit, the normal derivative of the wave function is assumed to vanish, for this boundary condition provides a problem with calculable diffraction even at grazing incidence. A useful formulation (Sec. 2) of the boundary value problem involves Fourier transforms of field distributions in the plane of the screens, and enables the transmission cross section of the slit to be directly inferred (Sec. 3). The screen distributions are characterized by a pair of integral equations which allow systematic approximation (Sec. 4) at short wavelengths for arbitrary angle of incidence. A few terms in the asymptotic development of the cross section at oblique incidence are obtained explicitly, and since this development fails at grazing incidence, the analogous terms for the latter case are derived by a limiting process. Lastly (Sec. 5), in the related problem of planewave scattering by an infinite strip, a comparison is made with the variational results based on strip distributions of primary or unperturbed form.

Nonlinear Heat Transfer Problem

Paul L. Chambré

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1683 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735036 (6 pages) | Cited 12 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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A study has been made of the time‐dependent heat conduction in a semi‐infinite medium subject to a boundary condition which can involve the temperature in a nonlinear manner. A formulation for the determination of the surface temperature, which is often of greatest physical interest, leads to a nonlinear Volterra integral equation. A simple iterative solution method, with an accuracy suitable for many practical purposes is presented. As an example, the problem of the time‐dependent surface temperature of a body receiving heat according to the Stefan‐Boltzmann law is treated. The analysis is also applicable to physical adsorption or chemisorption processes which occur at the boundary.

Surface‐Dependent Losses in Variable Reactance Diodes

D. E. Sawyer

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1689 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735037 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Surface effects may seriously degrade the high frequency performance of a semiconductor junction diode used as a variable reactance element without significantly degrading the diode's dc characteristics. Measurements on both p+n and n+p germanium alloy junction diodes have yielded a diode series equivalent resistance component in excess of the calculated integrated bulk resistance. This excess resistance decreased with frequency approximately as 1∕f and for freshly etched devices could be varied by changing the atmosphere surrounding the diode. Those ambients which yielded a maximum surface‐determined junction breakdown voltage also yielded a maximum frequency‐dependent excess resistance. A model which can explain these observations assumes a surface inversion layer contiguous with the alloy junction.

Temperature Dependence and Lifetime in Semiconductor Junctions

D. A. Jenny and J. J. Wysocki

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1692 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735038 (7 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The temperature dependence of a semiconductor p‐n junction over a given temperature range can be held to a minimum by using material with a minority carrier lifetime below a certain maximum value. The first‐order temperature dependence of the junction currents is then iαe−Eg∕2kT, rather than iαe−Eg∕kT, over the entire operating temperature range. Calculations applied to gallium arsenide in monograph form show that an optimum lifetime should be practically attainable by controlled doping with recombination‐center impurities. The maximum‐lifetime condition fixes the last remaining degree of freedom in the choice of semiconductor material properties for junction device design. The upper operating temperature limit of junction devices is calculated for germanium, silicon, indium phosphide, and gallium arsenide.

Some Effects of Low Fields on Luminescence of CdS

C. E. Bleil and D. D. Snyder

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1699 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735039 (4 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The effects produced on luminescence and conductivity in pure CdS crystals by application of electric fields up to ∼1000 v∕cm are reported. A shift in the red and green cathodoluminescence peaks of ∼0.1 A∕v∕cm is observed. After application of the low fields, some crystals required over 90 minutes to recover their ``prefield'' luminescence. Fine structure in the luminescent peaks at room temperature is reported. A V‐I plot shows a sublinear relation in this voltage range for several different levels of irradiation. An explanation of the observations is suggested based on self trapping of electrons.

Thermal Conductivity of Clear Fused Silica at High Temperatures

Kurt L. Wray and Thomas J. Connolly

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1702 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735040 (4 pages) | Cited 25 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The thermal conductivity of clear fused silica was measured over the temperature range 300–2100°K in an experiment which minimized radiative energy transport. This was a steady‐state experiment involving the measurement of the electric current and voltage drop through a fine tungsten wire which was embedded along the axis of a cylindrical silica rod. The wire served both as a heating element and as a resistance thermometer. Thermal conductivities were calculated by graphical evaluation of the rate of change of electric power with temperature at different temperatures. The experiment yielded thermal conductivities between 2.6×10−3 and 2.9×10−3 cal∕cm sec°K at room temperature, and between 4.5×10−3 and 5.5×10−3 cal∕cm sec°K over the temperature range 1000–2100°K.

Normal Stress Effect in Polymer Solutions

Tadao Kotaka, Michio Kurata, and Mikio Tamura

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1705 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735041 (8 pages) | Cited 27 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Normal stress phenomena are studied in solutions of some typical high polymers, polystyrene, methylcellulose, and sodium‐carboxymethylcellulose, with a parallel plate instrument. The principle of procedures for separate determination of normal stress components with the parallel plate instrument is briefly described. The normal stress measurements are performed in shearing rates ranging from about 1.0 to 100. The results obtained, together with the flow curves, are discussed in terms of the cross‐elasticity theory and of some molecular bases. It is concluded that polystyrene solutions roughly obey ``Hooke's law in shear,'' while solutions of cellulose derivatives are remarkably ``non‐Hookean in shear.''

Rolling Friction of a Hard Cylinder over a Viscoelastic Material

W. D. May, E. L. Morris, and D. Atack

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1713 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735042 (12 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The rolling friction of a hard cylinder over a viscoelastic material is worked out in terms of the bulk properties of the material. It is found that the rolling friction has a maximum at a velocity corresponding to the peak of the relaxation time distribution. Both the load required to maintain the cylinder at constant depth of indentation and the coefficient of friction are dependent on the velocity of rolling. The shape of the rolling friction versus velocity curve is a first approximation to the distribution curve of relaxation times, indicating that rolling friction measurements can be used to determine the distribution experimentally.

Theory of Rolling Friction for Spheres

D. G. Flom and A. M. Bueche

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1725 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735043 (6 pages) | Cited 26 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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A theory of rolling friction featuring the importance of elastic hysteresis losses is presented. A simple model of retarded elasticity is chosen to represent the physical properties of the material. A prediction resulting from the theory is that the coefficient of friction for a relatively hard sphere rolling on a softer base material should vary with speed so as to go through a maximum. This relationship resembles closely the variation of mechanical loss with frequency.
The results are not restricted to rolling but also apply to well‐lubricated sliding where shearing forces have been minimized. Although the theory is developed for a material with idealized physical properties, it nevertheless affords a basis for comparing real materials and for predicting their frictional properties in cases where deformation losses are predominant.

Effect of Atmosphere Conditions on the Brittleness of NaCl

E. S. Machlin and G. T. Murray

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1731 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735044 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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Contrary to the results of previous investigators, it has been found that molecular O2 and N2 have no effect on the ductility of rock salt single crystals. Also, it has been found that air‐aged crystals are brittle in summer and are ductile during a major fraction of the time in winter. Ductile rock salt crystals have been made brittle by subjecting them to ozone, NO, and atomic oxygen atmospheres. It is believed the ozone content of the atmosphere is responsible for the reported effects on brittleness. Other embrittling agents have been found.

Magnetic Viscosity in Iron Due to Carbon Atoms Anchored in Dislocations

G. Biorci, A. Ferro, and G. Montalenti

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1732 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735045 (4 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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A specimen of iron containing 0.01% of C in solid solution has been cold worked by 7% and aged at room temperature. After this treatment it shows a new peak of magnetic viscosity at 180°C. The diffusion process giving rise to the peak is controlled by an activation energy of about 32 000 cal∕g atom and a time constant at infinite temperature of about 10−14 sec. These figures agree with those of a peak of internal friction observed in similar specimens by Kê and by Köster, and interpreted as due to diffusion of C atoms in the surroundings of the dislocations. Hence the peak of magnetic viscosity can be related to the same mechanism.

Sintering Reactions of Zinc Oxide

V. J. Lee and G. Parravano

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1735 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735046 (6 pages) | Cited 14 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The sintering of zinc oxide spheres has been studied in the temperature range 700 to 900°C in air, oxygen, helium, and hydrogen. Fresh zinc oxide sinters rapidly in air and oxygen, but it does not sinter appreciably in helium in the same temperature range. Zinc oxide spheres annealed separately in air may not be sintered in air at temperatures as high as 1100°C. On the other end, fresh spheres, separately air annealed and subsequently treated in an hydrogen atmosphere, do sinter in the temperature range 700 to 900°C. These facts are explained on the basis of a mechanism involving the diffusional transfer of stoichiometric excess of zinc ions. The diffusion equation for zinc ions is derived, and the experimental points fit the equation satisfactorily. The treatment shows that the relationship between the width of bridges connecting sintering spheres and time varies with extent of sintering. This fact invalidates the use of this relationship as a unequivocal diagnostic criterium for the sintering mechanism in nonstoichiometric oxides.

Calculation of the Rate of Energy Deposition in Polyethylene by Reactor Radiation

D. E. Kline and A. Jacobs

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1741 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735047 (7 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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An attempt is made in this discussion to determine the energy deposited in a small sample in terms of impinging reactor radiations, both neutron and gamma ray. The intensities of various radiations from a nuclear reactor are often presented in terms which are difficult to manipulate or interpret for energy deposition considerations. For example, the epithermal neutron flux is usually given as the integral neutron flux above the 0.4 ev cadmium resonance. However, for some energy deposition mechanisms, such as proton recoil, the neutron energy distribution is of utmost importance. These difficulties are partly resolved in this paper by using some empirical evidence of the characteristics of reactor radiations to convert the usual expression of intensities into energy deposited per gram‐hour in polyethylene. This can be easily extended to other materials, particularly polymers. It is also emphasized in this paper, by specific calculations for two reactor types, that certain simplifying assumptions, which are often made with regard to the characteristics of reactor radiation, are invalid in energy deposition considerations.

Studies of Individual Dislocations in Crystals by X‐Ray Diffraction Microradiography

A. R. Lang

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1748 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735048 (8 pages) | Cited 159 times

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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The distribution of imperfections within the interior of crystals has been studied using ``projection topographs'' which are x‐ray diffraction images showing a projection of a slice of crystal and the imperfections in it. Individual dislocations have been observed in single crystals of diamond, silicon, germanium, lithium fluoride, sodium chloride, silver chloride, magnesium oxide, calcite, quartz, and aluminum. From the variation of dislocation contrast with the orientation of the x‐ray reflecting plane the direction of Burgers vector can be found. Dislocations can be seen with good contrast when the product of linear absorption coefficient μ and slice thickness t is of the order of unity or less. If μt≫1 the contrast is reversed through the Borrmann effect. Stereo pairs of projection topographs can be prepared from the pair of reflections hkl and hkl.

Temperature Dependence of Fractional Velocity Changes in a Germanium Single Crystal

Frances Stein, Norman G. Einspruch, and Rohn Truell

J. Appl. Phys. 30, 1756 (1959); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1735049 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 16 June 2004

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An ultrasonic interferometer technique for measuring the temperature dependence of relative changes in elastic constants has been utilized to study the variation of c11 for germanium. Results are reported for measurements carried out as a function of frequency from 30 Mc∕sec to 170 Mc∕sec for compressional wave propagation along the [100] direction in two sets of compatible germanium samples over the temperature range from −60°C to 0°C. The mean value of (1∕c11) (dc11∕dT) is 78.87×10−6(°C)−1, and no systematic frequency dependence of (1∕c11) (dc11∕dT) was found.
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